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A training manual for sweet sorghum.
by
Li=20 Guiying, Gu Weibin, Alastair Hicks and Keith R. = Chapman.
EcoPort=20 version (revised) by Peter = Griffee.

Contributor:Kei= th=20 Chapman
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Abstract

This manual is an output of the FAO Project = TCP/CPR/0066=20 "Development of Sweet Sorghum for Grain, Sugar, Feed, Fiber, and=20 Value-Added By-products, in the Arid, Saline-Alkaline Regions". = This=20 project was designed to help provide an alternative crop for the = arid and=20 saline/alkaline areas of northeast and northwest China where = traditional=20 summer crops such as maize and cotton are failing through lack of = water or=20 excess salinity and alkalinity.

The manual was prepared by = Li=20 Guiying Dr./Associate Professor, Institute for Application of = Atomic=20 Energy, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Gu Weibin = Dr./Associate Professor, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of = Sciences=20 (CAS), Alastair Hicks Senior Agro-industry Post Harvest Officer=20 FAO/AGST/RAPG Bangkok Thailand and Keith R. Chapman Plant = Production=20 Officer Industrial Crops FAO/AGPC/RAPG Bangkok Thailand. The = English=20 version was prepared following the suggestion of Mr. Chapman = (representing=20 the project's Lead Technical Unit) and this Internet version was = revised=20 and expanded by Peter Griffee, Senior Officer, Industrial Crops=20 FAO/AGPC/Rome, Italy.

There is a Foreword and = Acknowledgement=20 followed by 9 chapters:

Ch. 1. Introduction to the Project=20 FAO/TCP/CPR/0066

Part I. Cultural Practices and Breeding: = Ch. 2.=20 Biology; Ch. 3. Cultural Practices; Ch. 4. Genetics and=20 Breeding.

Part II Comprehensive Utilization: Ch. 5. Ethanol = Production from Stalks; Ch. 6. Sugar Production; Ch. 7. Ensilage; = Ch. 8.=20 Agro-ecosystems and Ch. 9. Other Uses.

Table of Contents
Foreword and Acknowledgements by Li = Guiying and=20 Keith Chapman.
Ch. 1. Introduction to the=20 Project.
Part I. Cultural Practices and=20 Breeding.
Ch. 2. Biology.
Ch. 3. Cultural = Practices.
Ch. 4. Genetics and = Breeding.
Part II Comprehensive = Utilization.
Ch. 5. Ethanol Production from=20 Stalks.
  Methods of Ethanol Production; Liquid=20 Fermentation.
    Single Concentration Continuous = Fermentation;=20 Continuous Fermentation of a Fixed-yeast Fluid-bed System and=20 Distillation.
    Appendix I: Pelletizing Machine for Yeast = Cells=20 Immobilized Carrier Production and Appendix II: Sugar=20 Analysis.
Ch. 6. Sugar = Production.
Ch. 7. Ensilage. = (1).
Ch. 7. Ensilage. = (2).
Ch. 8. = Agro-ecosystems.
Ch. 9. Other Uses.
Ch. 10. Further=20 reading.

Foreword and Acknowledgements by Li Guiying and = Keith=20 Chapman. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Foreword:

Sweet sorghum is a variant = of and=20 closely related to other grain sorghum crops. Sweet=20 sorghum mainly differs from grain=20 sorghum ('broom corn') in that its stalks are taller and = juicer and it=20 has a higher sugar content. It reproduces by seed and produces = tillers,=20 but it has no rhizomes. It is a perennial grass under tropical conditions, = but it is=20 killed in areas where winter frost occurs.

It can be used = for many=20 purposes: grain is used as food, juice for producing alcohol; = stalks are=20 used as silage or fodder; the fiber of the stalks is one of the = best=20 materials for making high quality paper, etc. It is very important = that=20 sweet sorghum be developed, especially in the reconstruction of = rural=20 plantation systems in China.

In recent years, the = energy crisis=20 and environmental pollution have become more and more serious, = which has=20 affected our daily life in China. So more and more countries have = begun to=20 attach great importance to sustainable green energy, such as = biomass=20 energy. Sweet sorghum is such an ideal alternative.

With = the=20 increasing price of gasoline, the Chinese government has put the=20 development of sustainable green energy firmly on its agenda. A=20 large-scale alcohol plant producing 800,000 tons per year has been = approved for construction in North East China. And in Hunan = province, the=20 local government has introduced new regulations to produce new=20 environment-protecting mixed fuel-ethanol that should be used in = place of=20 traditional gasoline from January 1, 2001. In Beijing, experiments = are=20 being done to use alcohol-gasoline as a car fuel. Some car = producers are=20 speeding development of new cars that use alcohol or = gasoline-alcohol as=20 fuels.

However, the higher cost of alcohol production is = one of=20 main constraints to the extension of new alcohol-gasoline and this = is yet=20 to be solved. Generally, alcohol is produced with corn or dried = sliced sweet=20 potato or yam as raw materials. Selection of = crops with=20 high yield and low cost is essential to cut the production cost of = alcohol.

It is known that sweet sorghum is a C-4 crop with a very high = photosynthetic=20 rate. There are two sinks (grain and stalk) for biomass and the = crop has=20 great production potential. Sweet sorghum is a known high-energy=20 crop.

In addition, sweet sorghum is very nutritional, and = makes=20 good quality fodder. With the national economic development and=20 improvement of living standards, the need for milk and/or meat = products is=20 increasing. However, with decreased areas of available land, = competition=20 for grain and feed is becoming more and more intensive. If we use = sweet=20 sorghum as an animal feed, more grain (maize in=20 particular) could be saved and the stress on land and environment = would be=20 somewhat alleviated.

Development of sweet sorghum will play = an=20 important role in promoting agricultural food production, = livestock=20 husbandry, energy sources, sugar and papermaking etc.

In = order to=20 further develop sweet sorghum in China, the Food and Agriculture=20 Organization of the United Nations provided funds for the project=20 'Development of Sweet Sorghum for Grain, Sugar, Feed, Fiber, and=20 Value-Added By-products, in the Arid, Saline- Alkaline Regions'. = This=20 project was designed to help provide an alternative = drought/salinity=20 tolerant crop for the arid and saline/alkaline areas of Northeast = and=20 Northwest China, where traditional summer crops such as maize, cotton=20 etc. are failing through lack of water or excess salinity and = alkalinity.=20 Sweet sorghum will form the base for livestock feed especially in=20 Northwest China, where grazing is banned to prevent advancing=20 desertification.

During the project, numbers of training = courses=20 were held. To help share this knowledge and experience in China = with sweet=20 sorghum, this English version of the Training Manual was prepared = at the=20 suggestion of Keith Chapman, FAO/AGPC/RAP Industrial Crops Officer = (the=20 Lead Technical Unit) from FAO in=20 Bangkok.

Acknowledgements:

The authors = sincerely=20 acknowledge the materials produced for this manual by the = Brazilian=20 international consultant Dr. Carlos Coelho de Carvalho Neto, = the=20 National Consultants Zheng Qicheng, Zhang Chunshen, Liang Hanping = and Wang=20 Junmu.

We sincerely acknowledge the funding and technical=20 assistance of FAO and especially the support of the FAO = Representative and=20 Mr. Sun Yinhong, the key programme officer, FAO Office, = Beijing.

We=20 also sincerely acknowledge the support and encouragement of the = Chinese=20 Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), the Institute for = Application of=20 Atomic Energy, Beijing and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, = Institute of=20 Botany, Beijing.

Ch. 1. Introduction to the Project. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Background:

FAO's hands on = involvement with=20 sweet=20 sorghum in China began in 1997 with the = co-sponsorship of=20 the First International Sweet Sorghum Conference held at the = Beijing=20 Botanical Garden.

Sweet sorghum is basically a sugar crop. = In 1997,=20 the per capita use of sugar in the world was 212 kg, while it was = only 5.6=20 kg in China, where 1,2 million t of sugar had to be imported every = year.=20 No sugar crop is grown in the 20 provinces along the valleys of = Yellow=20 River and Yangtze River; however these areas are appropriate for = growing=20 sweet sorghum.

Compared with sugarcane, the main advantages of sweet = sorghum=20 are as follows: its growth period is short, and in areas with a = long=20 growing season it can be harvested twice a year; while the growing = season=20 of sugarcane is usually 8-12 months. Sugarcane is propagated from = stem=20 cuttings needing 4,500 to 6,000 kg/ha of cane, while sweet sorghum = is=20 propagated with seed; 4.5-7.5 kg/ha of seed is enough. The = quantity of=20 water needed by sweet sorghum is only 1/3 of that needed by = sugarcane.=20 Experiments in Inner Mongolia showed that the net return of = sweet=20 sorghum is twice of that of sugar beet.

Aridity and the = saline/alkali=20 problems are serious constraints to food production in China. = Therefore, a=20 crop that not only produces food, feed, fiber and energy but also = adapts=20 to the dry climate and saline-alkali soil is needed. Recent = research and=20 demonstration showed that sweet sorghum is such a crop and it = meets these=20 parameters.

The agro-ecological and industrial system of = sweet=20 sorghum can promote the development of production, livestock = farming, and=20 processing industries and produce many jobs. A great labour = surplus exists=20 in rural areas of China, estimated from 0.1 billion to 0.15 = billion. The=20 farmers have difficulty finding jobs and there is poverty in the=20 mountainous regions and arid, saline-alkaline areas, especially = among=20 women in rural areas. Therefore the sustainable development of = agriculture=20 and rural economy in these regions is a prime long-term=20 objective.

The arid land, in Huang Huai Hai region and = NorthWest=20 China, has serious saline-alkali and salinization problems. The = total area=20 of saline-alkaline and salinized land is about 1733 million ha. In = badly=20 affected areas, crops germinate with great difficulty, grow slowly = and=20 this results in poor harvests. Often complete crop failures occur. = These=20 adverse conditions constitute serious obstacles to food and forage = production and food security in China.

To demonstrate and = develop=20 sweet sorghum production and make comprehensive use of it in = processing,=20 in the arid and saline-alkaline regions, FAO provided technical = assistance=20 under the Technical Cooperation Project TCP/CPR/0066.

The = Institute=20 for Application of Atomic Energy, Chinese Academy of Agricultural=20 Sciences, and Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, = Chinese=20 Academy of Sciences has been engaged in studies on introduction = and=20 breeding of new varieties of sweet sorghum for over 30 years. = Several new=20 varieties with high yield and added adaptability to adverse = environments=20 have recently been developed. This has been largely due to the = 'champion'=20 of sweet sorghum breeding Prof. Li Dajue. The new Government = strategy has=20 opened up an opportunity for these Academies to further develop = this work=20 and apply the new technologies.

However, there were still = specific=20 gaps in the agronomic and processing technologies, which the = project=20 addressed.

Technical and financial support was needed to = establish=20 pilot scale testing, and popularization of production and = comprehensive=20 utilization of sweet sorghum in arid-and salinized regions. It is = for this=20 purpose that assistance from FAO was sought. The families of these = regions=20 urgently needed the alternative crop technology both in crop = production=20 and multi-use.

At the end of the FAO-funded project = (2001-2003),=20 sweet sorghum was popularized on a large scale with the support of = the=20 Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Science and Technology = of=20 China. The total growing area is expected to reach 500,000 ha by = 2005 to=20 2010, with the help of the improved knowledge, technology, and = experience=20 gained from the project on the practical production and = utilization of=20 sweet sorghum.

Objectives:

Overall=20 Objective:

To stimulate and develop sweet sorghum = production=20 and comprehensive utilization in two arid, saline-alkali regions = of China=20 as the first steps towards income generation, job creation and = poverty=20 alleviation and environmental protection in line with stated = Government=20 strategies.

Specific Objectives:

Train = technicians in=20 the techniques of growing and managing sweet sorghum as well as = its=20 processing and livestock feeding.

Train local farmers in = two=20 regions with typical arid and saline-alkaline characteristics, = making use=20 of demonstrations of the growing and utilization of improved, new=20 varieties (or hybrids).

Develop a model = for=20 production and comprehensive utilization for future extension to = 3-5 other=20 similar regions in China.

Part I. Cultural Practices and Breeding. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Part I covers -

Chapter 2 - Biology: = Botanical Characters; (Root system, Stalk, Leaf, Flower head and = Grain),=20 Biological Characteristics; (Seedling, Elongation, Earring and = blooming=20 and Milking and ripening) and Environmental Requirements; (Soil, = Moisture,=20 Temperature, Day length and Radiation).

Chapter 3 - = Cultural=20 Practices: Preparation of Soil; (Spring sowing and Summer = sowing),=20 Fertilizer Application; Sowing; (Seed treatment, Sowing time, = Seeding=20 rates and Sowing methods), Field Management; (Breaking hard soil, = Gap=20 filling, Thinning, Tillage and Hilling, Topdressing, Watering and=20 drainage, Harvest and Storage for forage and sugar, Storage = methods, Pest=20 control, Diseases - rust and anthracnose, Insects - aphids and = snout moth,=20 Others.

Chapter 4 - Genetics and Breeding: Genetics = of Some=20 Agronomic Characters of Sweet Sorghum; (Juice, Sugar content, = Stalk=20 texture, Plant height, Variation coefficients, Yield and sugar = content),=20 Sweet Sorghum Breeding; (Breeding objectives, Approaches, = Hybridization,=20 Handling progenies, Pollination techniques, Heterosis, Induced=20 mutations).

Ch. 2. Biology.
 Return=20 To Table of Contents

Botanical Characters:

It is a=20 single-stemmed grass (a cereal crop) reaching a = height of=20 1-5 m. Sweet sorghum is usually taller than grain=20 sorghum.

The Root System:

Sweet sorghum = has a=20 strong root system and a layer of heavy disilicicate covers the epidermis of the root. As the root = grows to=20 maturity it forms an entire silicon column which provide it with = enough=20 mechanical density during a drought period to prevent the root = system from=20 collapsing.

It has fibrous, spreading roots and consists of = a=20 primary, secondary and supporting roots. The primary root is = developed=20 from the seed embryo. It is the only embryo root produced by the = seed=20 during germination. Before the production of secondary roots, the = primary=20 root is the main organ by which the plant absorbs nutrients and = moisture=20 from the soil. Prop roots may grow from culm nodes. There is a bud = at each=20 node from which a tiller may grow. The only temporary root in = sorghum is=20 the single radicle of the germinating seedling. Mature roots of = sorghum=20 are all adventitious. Those permanent = roots have=20 numerous branched lateral roots interlacing the soil in all = directions.=20 The system may extend to at least 1.5 m away from the plant, and = is most=20 abundant in the top 90 cm, although it may extend to twice that=20 depth.

One of the important factors affecting water use and = drought=20 endurance must be the effectiveness of the root system. While the = primary=20 roots of maize and sorghum are equally extensive, sorghum = possesses twice=20 as many secondary roots as maize at any one stage of = growth.

After=20 the plant produces 3-4 leaves, secondary roots grow out from the = base of=20 the stalk node near the soil surface. During the period from = germination=20 to senescence, secondary roots constantly play the role of = supplying=20 moisture and nutrients, and become the permanent roots. = Development of the=20 root system is affected by the soil and moisture conditions. In = porous=20 soils the root system is well developed. In dry climates, the = number of=20 secondary roots is less, but they grow deep in the soil, so can = absorb the=20 moisture in the bottom layers of the soil, and convey strong=20 drought-resistant ability. Supporting roots are also called air = roots. Air=20 roots grow out from the first to fourth nodes as the base of the = plant.=20 They grow thicker than underground roots and are tougher and more = tensile=20 and, after reaching the soil, they may form strong support roots. = Plants=20 produce more or less supporting roots depending on environmental=20 conditions and varieties. As well as supporting the plant they = absorb=20 nutrients and moisture in the soil. Hilling or earthing-up of the = plants=20 with soil make the supporting roots fully perform their function, = and=20 strengthen lodging resistance.

The = stalk:

After=20 emergence, a single, erect nodose culm is rapidly produced, = however, under=20 certain conditions tillers will grow either from the = base of=20 the plant or from internodes. Once mature, the fresh stems are 1.5 = to 3 cm=20 in diameter and can contain 5-15% sugars. Culms, sometimes with = spaces in=20 the pith, are 0.6-5 m tall, depending on variety (mainly), soil = fertility,=20 temperature and daylength and growing conditions. The stalk of = early=20 ripening varieties is shorter than that of late varieties. In = higher=20 latitudes, the daylength is longer and the growing stage is=20 correspondingly prolongued, so the plant is taller. Therefore, = when sweet=20 sorghum is introduced to lower latitudes nearer the equator, the = plant=20 will become shorter, while plants introduced to the higher = latitudes=20 become taller.

See Fig. 2.1: Sweet sorghum plants and stalk sections of an individual=20 plant.

The stalk has about 10-20 clearly protruding nodes. = In=20 general, the internodes are shorter at the base and longer in the = middle.=20 In the upper part internodes gradually become short but the = terminal node=20 spacing (the internodes under the flag leaf) is longer. The base = is always=20 thicker than the top. The thickness of both is not uniform, and in = some=20 varieties differences are very large. Therefore the diameter = between the=20 two joints at the middle part of the stalk is measured. See Table = 2.1=20 & 2. (Characteristics=20 of some sweet sorghum varieties).

A leaf is produced = from every=20 node. The node has a vertical groove on the side where the leaf = grows. In=20 the groove there is an axillary bud. Certain varieties have no = vertical=20 groove and no obvious axillary buds. Axillary buds are generally = dormant.=20 During the tillering stage the base generally produces 1-5 = tillering buds;=20 in general, they are shredded in time. After the seed has ripened = and the=20 spike has been harvested, the upper part of the stalk will sprout = 2-3 new=20 buds. After growing out 1-2 leaves, every new bud may flower=20 immediately.

After the grain spike has been harvested and = the stalk=20 has been cut, the dormant bud of the stubble can also grow into a=20 tillering stalk. With good management these tillers can grow into = new=20 plants. The growth period of new plants is shorter as the = carbohydrates=20 accumulate quickly since the root system is already well = established. The=20 yield of stalk and seed may be considerable. In some regions where = the=20 growing period is longer, the crop can be harvested = twice.

On the=20 outside of the stalk there is thick membranous tissue, which is = very hard.=20 On the inside it is filled with pith. Most of the sugar is stored = in the=20 pith. The epidermis of the stalk is covered with white waxy = powder. When=20 the climate is dry, the waxy layer prevents moisture evaporation = from the=20 plant and when the stalk is waterlogged, the white waxy powder can = prevent=20 the water from entering the stalk. Therefore sweet sorghum is not = only a=20 drought-resistant crop but also is resistant to water-logging. The = weight=20 the stalk varies widely among varieties and with plant density,=20 environment, and growing conditions. The proportion of stalk after = stripping the leaves is generally in the range 60-80% of weight of = above=20 ground parts and depends on the variety, cultural practices, and=20 especially the density of planting. The Brix (total soluble = solids) of the=20 juice in the stalk depends on the variety and is affected by the=20 environment and harvest time, and varies from 7-24%. Even in the = same=20 variety, juices of different plants have different Brix levels. = (See Table=20 2.1 & 2.).

The main use is lies in the sugar content in = the=20 stalk. Therefore, in the selection of varieties, the sugar content = is the=20 main economic character. If the main intention is to use the plant = for=20 sugar, the variety selected should have a high sugar content; and = the less=20 starch and aconitinic acid that the stalk contains the better. If = it is=20 used to make wine or alcohol, the amount of reducing sugar and = starch do=20 not matter because all can be use as materials for fermentation, = to=20 produce alcohol.

The leaf:

Leaves are opposite-decussate and consist of the = sheath, blade=20 and tongue or ligule. The sheath is very long = and adheres=20 closely to a major part of the internode. The blade is broad, = strap-like,=20 dentate and the surface is smooth = and=20 covered with a waxy powder which plays a role in reducing = evaporation. In=20 dry conditions, the leaf blade will roll up into a tube, reducing = the=20 exposed area and thus cutting down the loss of moisture.

Leaves are 30-135 cm long and 6-13 cm = wide. As=20 every node produces one leaf, the number of leaves on a plant is = equal to=20 the number of nodes. The leaf number varies with different = varieties and=20 different latitudes. For sweet sorghum cultivated in higher = latitudes the=20 number of leaves will increase as the daylength is longer and the=20 vegetative growth is prolonged. Conversely, the number of leaves = will be=20 reduced in lower latitudes nearer to the equator.

The first = leaf of=20 the young seedling is the smallest and leaf size increases = gradually to=20 the maximum in the middle of the plant and becomes gradually = smaller. The=20 place where the largest leaf is situated is called the "leaf = seat". The=20 leaf seat of the largest leaf is usually between leaves 5-13 (from = top to=20 bottom). The leaf seat is closely related to the growing period of = the=20 various varieties and to yield. The lower the leaf seat, the = longer the=20 growing period and the higher the yield.

In a well managed = crop a=20 leaf area index of between 4 to 6 will occur in one to two months = after=20 germination and a total of approximately 22 leaves will be = produced. The=20 average weight of the fresh leaves of a single plant varies in the = range=20 of 150-250g. The leaf has a high content of protein and thus a = high forage=20 value.

The Flower Head:

The flowers are grouped in an apical panicle formed by several reddish = spikelets. After the panicle has = grown out=20 from the flag leaf sheath it begins blooming at once. The top = small spikes=20 bloom first, then, successively, those at the middle followed by = those at=20 the lower part.

After blooming and pollination, sweet = sorghum=20 enters the grain development stage through the 'milk ripe' stage = and 'wax=20 ripe' stage to maturity. The form of the spike varies depending on = different varieties. Among the varieties, there are loose spike = forms,=20 side loose spike forms and compact spike forms. There are = multiform=20 spikes, such as 'Mer 72-3' and 'Sart' which show a club form; = 'Cowley'=20 shows a spindle form; 'MN 4055' and 'Tracy' show a tube form, etc. = The=20 proportion occupied by the fresh panicle weight in the total = biomass of=20 the whole plant is 5.60-19.67%. Generally speaking, the variety = with a=20 high yield of stalk has lower yield of seed grain. It may be = possible to=20 breed varieties with high stalk and grain yields.

In=20 'multi-purpose' varieties of sweet sorghum high levels of sugars = are=20 maintained even during grain filling with none, or very little, of = the=20 carbon in the sugars being translocated to the grains. Therefore, = in these=20 varieties flowering is of commercial importance if the seeds are = to be=20 used for beer or flour making. In addition, as seed based = propagation is=20 the primary method for planting, flowering is = essential.

See Fig.=20 2.2: Different kinds of spikes of sweet = sorghum.

The=20 Grain:

The grain is an oblong caryopsis which consists of the = seed coat,=20 testa, endosperm and embryo. The shapes and colours of = seeds are=20 very varied and are covered by glumes that may or may not be = removed by=20 threshing. There are round, flat-round, oval, ellipse shapes etc. = The=20 colours include white, light yellow, pink, brown, red-brown, dark = brown=20 etc. As the testa contains tannin, it tastes a little acid. Tannin = can=20 neutralize alkalinity, so if the seed is sown in alkaline soil, it = can=20 locally reduce the disadvantageous effect of alkalinity on its=20 germination.

See Fig. 2.3: The different colors and shapes = of seeds of sweet sorghum.

In = general, the=20 seed of sweet sorghum is smaller than that of grain sorghum; the=20 thousand-seed weight is about 21g varying between 16-28g. (25,000 = to=20 61,740/kg for sweet and grain sorghum; 120,000 to 159,000/kg for = grass=20 sorghum). Despite the ability to ratoon, seeds provide the main method of = propagation.=20 One or more tonnes of seed per hectare may be produced by sweet=20 sorghum.

The thousand-seed weight of sweet sorghum = cultivated in=20 the Beijing area is higher than that of the original imported seed = showing=20 that sweet sorghum is adaptable to North China; however, it must = ripen=20 before the frosts arrive.

Biological=20 Characteristics:

Sweet sorghum has well defined = growth and=20 development stages. The vegetative growth stage comes before=20 differentiation of the young spike. During the node formation = ('jointing')=20 stage, vegetative and reproductive growth proceed simultaneously, = and=20 there is a three-fold height increase. The growth and development = stage is=20 generally divided into 4; i.e. seedling, elongation, earing and = blooming=20 and the milk and ripening stage.

The Seedling=20 Stage:

The time from germination to the beginning of = jointing=20 is the seedling stage.

During seed germination there must = be=20 sufficient moisture, oxygen and suitable temperatures. Sweet = sorghum sown=20 in spring, when the temperature is lower, generally will emerge in = 7-10=20 days. When sown in summer, when the temperature is higher, it = emerges 2-3=20 days after sowing.

After producing 3-5 leaves, the tiller = will grow=20 out from the leaf axils. The duration from emergence of seedling = to=20 tillering is about 30 days. Most varieties of sweet sorghum have a = higher=20 tillering ability than that of grain sorghum. The highest = tillering=20 variety is 'Brandes' where one plant will produce 4-7 tillers. The = varieties with high tillering ability can be used for grazing. = However, it=20 should be stressed that the excessive tillers must be broken off = to avoid=20 the adverse affects on normal growth of the main stalk.

If = sweet=20 sorghum is used as raw material for making sugar or wine 1-2 = tillers per=20 plant are generally left and the others broken off. This allows = the stalk=20 to grow thicker and taller. The stalk size is even; the plants = ripen=20 together and resist falling-over. If it is used as forage the = plants are=20 left to tiller naturally and when the plants grow to excessive = density=20 some of tillers will become ineffective.

Sweet sorghum = grows slowly=20 in the seedling stage, and needs little more water and fertilizer. = When=20 basal manure is applied before sowing, the plant will not be short = of=20 nutrients at this stage. However, the completion from weeds can be = serious=20 and should be controlled.

The Elongation = Stage:

About=20 47-55 days after seedling emergence the plants enter the=20 jointing/elongation stage and the leaf surface area expands = quickly and=20 the plant rapidly elongates. The time varies among varieties. For=20 early-ripening varieties such as 'Italian' it lasts only 30 days; = while=20 for a late-ripening variety, such as 'MN 1500' it lasts as long as = 74-90=20 days. The difference between the two varieties is 2-3 fold. The = longer the=20 jointing stage lasts, the taller the plant grows and the yield of = stalk=20 will be higher. During the jointing stage the differentiation of = the young=20 seedling is also proceeding. The differentiation of the spike of=20 early-ripening varieties starts earlier than that of late-ripening = varieties.

The elongation stage of sweet sorghum is the key = plant=20 growth stage. Good cultivation and management during this stage is = vital=20 and will directly affect the yield of stalk and = seed.

Earing and=20 Blooming Stage:

After booting, it produces the final = leaf or=20 the flag leaf. After about a week it then begins earing, and after = 2-5=20 days it blooms. The flowers open gradually from the higher to = lower part=20 and from the outside to the inside of the spike. Each flower takes = about=20 one hour from opening to closing. Sweet sorghum is an out crossing = crop.=20 Therefore, during breeding of improved varieties and seed = production each=20 variety must be isolated in order to prevent different varieties = mixing=20 and subsequent varietal degeneration.

Blooming is the time = when it=20 needs maximum water. Therefore sufficient water must be ensured,=20 especially with varieties which are in full-bloom during hot = summer days.=20 Irrigation should particularly be applied during blooming if=20 needed.

The Milk and Ripening Stage:

The = ripening=20 process can be divided into three: the milk, the wax and the = mature-ripe=20 stages.

Milk stage: After completing pollination, a = part of=20 the nutrients is stored in the stalk of sweet sorghum and another = part is=20 transferred to the seed; therefore, the dry matter content is = continuously=20 accumulating in the seed, and the thousand-seed weight is rapidly=20 increasing. At milk stage the embryo in the seed is full of = endosperm.=20 When the seed is pressed/broken with a fingernail some milky white = thick=20 liquid will emerge.

Wax stage: The moisture in the = seed is=20 reduced quickly and the dry matter is reduced, the fresh weight is = decreased and the seed hardens. When the seed is pressed no thick = liquid=20 but a waxy paste exudes.

Mature stage: The seed = becomes dry=20 and hard, the accumulation of dry matter reaches a maximum and the = seed=20 shows the color and quality of the particular variety. From = blooming to=20 ripening takes about 30 days and the time varies with the=20 variety.

Environmental=20 Requirements:

Soil:

Sweet sorghum has = a wide=20 adaptability to different soil types. It can be cultivated both in = sandy=20 loams and in clay soils. However, like most crops, it produces = best when=20 cultivated in fertile soils. A major characterstic of new = varieties used=20 in the FAO project is their tolerance to saline-alkaline soils. = The ideal=20 pH range is 5.0-8.5.

Moisture:

The root = system is=20 well developed and penetrates deeply in the soil. The white waxy = powder on=20 the surface of stalks and leaves reduce transpiration. Under dry=20 conditions the leaves will naturally roll up to reduce = transpiration and=20 strongly enhance drought resistance. The "stay-green" effect The = plant can=20 grow better than maize in dry conditions. It also has a strong = resistance=20 to waterlogging especially in its late growing = stage.

Although it=20 has drought resistance, it still needs adequate water in order to = grow and=20 develop as the stalk and leaves contain a lot of water and juice. = It=20 normally needs more moisture than grain sorghum but breeding is = narrowing=20 the gap.

See Fig. 2.4: Sweet sorghum grows much better than = the=20 maize in arid=20 conditions.

Temperature:

Sweet = sorghum was=20 originally produced in tropical zones where it can be cultivated = in all=20 seasons, so it needs higher temperatures. In sub-tropical and = temperate=20 zones, it can be only be cultivated once per year. Different = varieties of=20 sweet sorghum need different temperatures varying between=20 20-35oC. The lowest temperature for germination is = 8-10. After=20 blooming it requires a large difference in temperature between day = and=20 night, which benefits the accumulation of sugar in the stalk and = nutrients=20 in the seed.

From sowing to ripening of seed, different = varieties=20 need different accumulated heat unit day degrees days above=20 10oC. The earliest ripening varieties 'Italian' and 'MN = 4055'=20 only need 1500 degree days. The mid-season ripening varieties such = as=20 'Rio', 'Wray', and 'Keller' need about 1800 degree days. Late = ripening=20 varieties 'theis', 'M-81E', 'Cowley' need about 2000 degree days. = The=20 latest ripening variety 'MN 1500' needs 2300-2500 degree days. = This factor=20 needs to be taken into consideration when introducing breeding=20 material.

Daylength:

Sweet sorghum is a = short-day=20 crop. Different varieties need very different day lengths. = Long-days=20 benefit vegetative growth. Short-days benefit reproductive growth. = Therefore, in low latitude zones, with short days, most varieties = of sweet=20 sorghum have lower biomass yields. It is necessary to select the = genotype=20 suitable to the local daylength conditions to achieve good=20 harvests.

The harvest time can be also adjusted through = selection=20 of various genotypes and appropriate management of the sowing = season.=20 These measures must be part of the production plan for any given=20 locality.

In some regions where the growing season of crops = is=20 shorter, early-ripening varieties should be the varieties to be=20 introduced. In some regions in South China where the growing = season is=20 longer, some late-ripening varieties insensitive to daylength such = as=20 'Cowley', 'M-81E' and 'Theis' etc. should be selected for = introduction.=20 Adjustment of sowing time can help in regenerating forage sweet = sorghum in=20 order to prolong the harvest time. This helps to fully utilize the = equipment and installations in sugar production and alcohol = production to=20 raise the economic benefit.

Radiation:

Sweet = sorghum=20 is a C4 metabolism tropical grass in = which the photosynthesis process does not = saturate at=20 normal solar radiation levels. High solar radiation conditions = combined=20 with higher growing temperatures (to facilitate the photosynthetic = and=20 translocation processes) and with adequate moisture, will produce = very=20 high biomass yields.

Ch. 3. Cultural Practices. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Sweet Sorghum is a crop with wide adaptability and = high=20 yield. However, to achieve this it is essential to develop = cultural=20 practices suited to local conditions.

Soil=20 Preparation:

It can adapt to a wide range of soils. = However, it is better that the soil is rich in organic matter, of = good=20 structure, deep, with good drainage and good water holding=20 capacity.

(Note from FAO: The following does not = embrace the=20 concept of Conservation Agriculture (CA), including 'no till' and = it is=20 highly recommended that CA practices be=20 considered).

Soil Preparation for Spring=20 Sowing:

There is sufficient time for soil preparation = in winter=20 fallow fields before spring sowing. In general, preparation of = soil=20 including plowing and harrowing is carried out once in winter, = spring and=20 before sowing. There are 3 aims: First, cultivation improves the = physical=20 tilth of the soil, making the soil porous, well aerated and = permeable.=20 Second, cultivation may increase the soil moisture-storage, = especially in=20 arid regions, by removing weeds and providing surface mulch to = remove=20 evaporation loss, especially important in saline-alkaline soils. = Third,=20 through winter plowing the roots and stubble remaining in the = field are=20 broken up and incorporated and weed and insect pest and plant = diseases are=20 reduced. In saline-alkaline areas, after plowing and evaporation = capacity=20 is reduced, the salinity rise is controlled. In addition, since = the=20 permeability is improved, once the rain is begin, the saline = content may=20 be reduced by leaching thus benefiting survival and development of = the=20 seedling. The depth ploughed is fixed according to the depth of = the soil,=20 but is generally about 20 cm.

Cultivation lifts the bottom = moisture=20 to the soil layer ploughed. For survival of the seedling, before = sowing,=20 the soil should be appropriately ploughed shallowly and harrowed = finely,=20 in order to give a fine tile and moisture for the emergence=20 seedlings.

Soil Preparation for Summer = Sowing:

When=20 sown in summer, the previous spring/winter crop may be wheat, barley or=20 rape.=20 The schedule is tight from reaping the previous crop to preparing = soil=20 then to sowing and the preparation must be done in a short period. = In this=20 period, the temperature is higher and rainfall is less and the = evaporation=20 ratio is higher. If stored soil moisture is inadequate it is = important=20 where possible to give one irrigation after harvest of the = previous crop=20 and before final harrowing for sowing.

Fertilizer=20 Application:

Adequate basal application of = fertilizer is=20 one of the important measures for yield increase of sweet sorghum. = Organic=20 fertilizer is the main basal application used in China=20 and this includes manure, human excrement and urine, miscellaneous = indigenous manure, compost made of stalks and green manure etc. = Sweet=20 sorghum grown with basal fertilizer is strong, its leaves are dark = green,=20 has more grains in a single spike, and the thousand-grain weight = is=20 higher. In general, the basal fertilizer applied is 60 t/ha. If no = application of basal fertilizer is made, the plant is small, and = 2-3=20 leaves of the lower part may become withered and yellow, the grain = number=20 per spike is reduced, and the yield decreased.

Organic = manure is=20 the main one and chemical is the subsidiary. Basal phosphate = applied in=20 proper proportions is an effective method for yield increase. It = is=20 inadvisable to apply nitrogen excessively; though the stalk yield = stalk=20 can increase, the content of sugar is lowered, and the plant can = not be=20 used to make crystallized sugar. The amount of phosphate = fertilizer=20 applied is based on the content of available phosphorus in the = soil. If=20 the content is 5-10 ppm, then, the amount of calcium super = phosphate=20 applied should be 300-375 kg/ha. If the content is less than 5 = ppm, then,=20 the amount applied should be 450-525 kg/ha. For side dressings=20 applications the ratio N, P and K fertilizers should be = appropriate for=20 the soil content of these elements. It is better to increase P and = K=20 fertilizer while N fertilizer could not be more than 375-450=20 kg/ha.

Sowing:

Seed=20 Treatment:

In order to raise the germination rate and = ensure a=20 full stand of plants it is important to treat seeds before=20 sowing:

1) Seed selection: In order to raise the rate of=20 germination and emergence, it is essential to eliminate the thin, = small,=20 injured, moth-eaten and mouldy seeds and select bigger and plump=20 seeds.

2) Drying the seeds eliminates the dormant state of = the=20 seeds and promotes physiologically early maturing. Seeds may be = dried in=20 the sun naturally or in a ventilated place. Especially sun drying = can=20 increase the permeability of the seed epidermis to water and air, and = increase the=20 viability and germination rate. The germination rate can be = increased=20 5-10% with sun drying. The seed after drying in the sun can = quickly absorb=20 the moisture in the soil, expand and germinate quickly, and the = seedling=20 will emerge well and usually 1-2 days earlier.

3) = Germination test:=20 The result of a germination test is an important basis to fix the = sowing=20 rate. The germination rate tested in a laboratory is generally = higher than=20 that in field. Also, the seedling emergence rate is often lower = than the=20 germination rate in field.

Sowing Time:

The = sowing=20 time of sweet sorghum should be fixed based on the temperature and = moisture of the soil. The lowest temperature for germination of = sweet=20 sorghum is 8-10oC. With lower temperatures seedlings = emerge=20 slowly. In general, a temperature of 12oC at 5 cm deep = is=20 better for spring sowing. If the temperature of the soil is too = low, the=20 seed takes a long time to germinate and seedlings emerge slowly, = and=20 easily become mildewed. If too late, the temperature in the soil = is=20 higher; however, the emerging rate is lower because of the serious = lack of=20 moisture in the soil. Moreover, if sowing too late, the = temperature is=20 high, the seedlings grow fast and the vegetative period is = shortened and=20 the plant grows slim and delicate, with lower yield. The soil = moisture=20 content is also one of the bases for fixing the sowing time. The = best time=20 for sowing is when the temperature in the surface soil is over=20 12oC, and the moisture content is between = 18-20%.

Summer=20 sowing of sweet sorghum should be carried out immediately after = reaping=20 the previous crop when the soil moisture content is better, = especially if=20 the previously crop is wheat.

Planting = Rates:

The=20 sowing rate depends on the germination, the quality of soil, soil = moisture=20 content, climate and the variety. In general, the sowing rate is = more than=20 that of grain sorghum per unit area. The sowing rate of big seed = is more=20 than that of small. The sowing rate in rushed sowings (for the = better soil=20 moisture) is more than that of sowing at an ideal time. The = quantity of=20 seed sown in spring is more than that sown in summer. If the = germination=20 rate is over 90%, the sowing quantity of seed is about 7.5 kg/ha = and in=20 these cases, a full stand of seedlings is ensured. If early = sowing, and=20 temperature of the soil is lower, or there are injurious insects = in the=20 soil, the rate should be increased. In addition, the sowing rate = is=20 depending on the use to which the crop is to be put. If the aim = silage the=20 rate should be increased to 12.0-15 kg/ha.

Rational close = planting=20 is important to fully utilize the soil fertility, moisture and = sunshine,=20 to produce bigger spikes of more plump grains and higher yields. = The=20 principle of rational close planting means that in fertile = well-watered=20 land spacing should be closer than in infertile arid land. In = general, the=20 row spacing is 50-70 cm, and the plant spacing is 15-20 cm = (varying with=20 variety).

Sowing Methods:

Generally, drill, = seeders=20 and dibblers are adopted for sowing. In some regions, drill = seeding can=20 not be conducted, so broadcast sowing is done. With either drill = seeding=20 or broadcast sowing, the soil covering the seeds must be pressed = tight. If=20 the soil moisture content is higher, the covering soil may be = pressed=20 later. If the soil moisture content is lower, it should be pressed = immediately after sowing; otherwise the moisture may be reduced = with=20 evaporation, thus impairing germination and emergence of=20 seedlings.

After summer sowing, the growing period = available is=20 short. After reaping wheat, the temperature is usually high and = conditions=20 dry, it is very important to rush-sow. These are the methods=20 used:

1) Inter-cropping. Interplant wheat with sweet = sorghum about=20 15 days before reaping the wheat, dibble the seeds in the rows = along the=20 ridges of wheat, 4-5 seeds hole, at a depth of 3-4 cm, the spacing = is=20 about 20 cm.

2) Dibbling in soil with better soil moisture = content.=20 If the soil moisture content is better, the seeds should be = dibbled in=20 rows and the suitable number of plants is = 60,000-75,000/ha.

3)=20 Cultivating and transplanting seedlings. Early sowing and = transplanting of=20 seedlings can prolong the growing stage, achieve high yield and = give a=20 bumper harvest. Transplanting of seedlings can ensure a full stand = compared to direct sowing, and plants can ripen 10-15 days = earlier. It is=20 better to begin cultivation of seedlings 15 days before reaping = wheat and=20 transplant the seedlings. The seedling age will then be 20-30 = days, with=20 5-6 leaves. If transplanting a large area, the seedling = cultivation should=20 be conducted by stages in order to ensure that those older than = 20-30 days=20 are not used as the yield will be reduced. The seedlings should be = watered=20 1-2 days before transplanting, promoting new roots, so that a high = survival rate can be achieved.

The bud sheath of white = grained=20 sweet sorghum is shorter so its ability to push up the earth is = weak.=20 Therefore, as well as good preparation of the soil for moisture = retention,=20 the sowing should not be too deep. If the soil is a clay loam, 3 = cm is=20 best, in a sandy loam it should not exceed 5 cm.

See = Fig.3.1: Land=20 preparation for mechanised sowing of sweet sorghum = and Fig.3.2:=20 Manual sowing of sweet = sorghum.

If sweet=20 sorghum is used for silage, its regenerated (ratooned) plants can = be used.=20 Every internode has an axillary bud, especially on the base, where = they=20 are densely distributed. After harvest these buds will quickly = grow into=20 new plants. To harvest more regenerated plants, the selection of = varieties=20 with a short growing stage is important; and sowing is carried out = early.=20 The field management after the first harvest involves application = of=20 fertilizer, watering and inter-cultivation for eliminating weeds = to create=20 good conditions for growth and development of regenerated plants,=20 accelerating axillary buds to grow quickly. Only two axillary buds = on each=20 plant should be retained, if more are kept their growth and = development=20 will be weaker.

Many varieties are not hybrids and can be = used for=20 many years; but it is outcrossed. Therefore, different varieties = cannot be=20 planted together for retaining seeds. 500 meters is needed in = order to=20 avoid natural hybrids. One early variety and one late variety can = be=20 planted together if their bloom periods do not correspond. If not, = every=20 spike should be bagged during the bloom period.

Field = Management:

Field management includes sowing = through the=20 growing stage until harvest. The major activities of field = management are=20 thinning seedlings, weeding, fertilizing, irrigation etc., in good = time in=20 order to ensure the plants grow and develop normally. Timely = prevention=20 and control of plant diseases and pests are also important for = achieving=20 high yield and good quality.

Breaking Hardened=20 Soil:

It may rain before seedling emergence causing the = ground=20 to crust with high sunlight and stimulating weeds. If so, the = field should=20 be harrowed in order to break the soil crust, decrease weeds and = increase=20 soil temperature and decrease plant diseases. This harrowing = should be=20 carried out next to the rows and not too deep.

Checking = and=20 Filling Gaps with Seedlings:

1) Re-sowing. After = sowing, there=20 are often gaps in the rows caused by deficiency of soil moisture, = low=20 quality of the seeds or soil pests. Therefore, after emergence of=20 seedlings, field checks should be conducted. Where the gaps in = seedlings=20 are found they should be re-sown. The seeds should be soaked in = hot water=20 before re-sowing to accelerating germination. If the soil moisture = content=20 is deficient, it should be watered, re-dibbled and covered with = soil after=20 the water fully permeates the soil. Accelerating germination is = important=20 to make seedlings of approximately the same size.

2) = Replanting.=20 Gaps should be replanted in time and before the seedlings produce = 5-6=20 leaves. Early replanting can increase survival rate. It is better = to=20 replant on a cloudy day or in the afternoon of a fine day. The = seedlings=20 for replanting should be selected from where they grow, strongly = and=20 should have no disease. If the soil moisture content is deficient, = it=20 should be watered before transplanting in order to ensure=20 survival.

Thinning of Seedlings:

In order to = avoid=20 gaps and select the best seedlings during final thinning the crop = is often=20 over-sown. The number of seedlings can be several times more than = that=20 those needed. Crowded plants hamper growth and development of the = young;=20 therefore it is important to conduct thinning of the seedlings at = the=20 right time.

1) Early thinning. Early thinning will reduce=20 undesirable competition for nutrients and moisture. Thinning = should be=20 conducted when plants have 2-3 leaves.

2) Final thinning is = done at=20 the 4-5 leaf stage. During final thinning a uniform interplant = spacing=20 should be kept. Strong seedlings of same size should be retained = as far as=20 possible.

3) Accelerate and restrain the growth of = seedlings. After=20 final thinning the growth of seedlings should be accelerated. = Application=20 of fertilizer and more watering should be made to the small and = weak=20 plants, accelerating the growth of these plants of second and = third=20 classes to become strong seedlings as soon as possible. The main = role of=20 restraining the growth of seedlings is to properly control the = growth of=20 the aerial parts, accelerate development of the roots and make the = young=20 plants grow healthily and strongly. Restraining the growth of = seedlings is=20 mainly used in spring sowings. After raking the earth, the plants = become=20 dwarfed and strong and thus resist lodging. More support roots = produced=20 will lead to an increase of yield.

Summer sown sweet = sorghum grows=20 rapidly with high temperatures. The seedling stage is only about = 30 days;=20 the whole growth and development period is short, so management = should be=20 aimed at promoting strong growth.

Inter-tillage and=20 Hilling:

Inter-tillage is very important for regulating = the=20 moisture and heat in the soil and promoting development. Growth is = slow=20 during the young seedling stage, and is endangered by weeds. = Inter-tillage=20 eliminates the weeds, reduces the consumption of moisture and = nutrients,=20 improves the ventilation and sunlight penetration and controls the = spread=20 of diseases and pests. After rain, it is more important to conduct = inter-tillage in time, promoting evaporation of the moisture in = the soil=20 and raising the soil temperature. Moreover, it can cut off the = root hairs,=20 control excessive growth of the stalk and leaves, stimulate the = occurrence=20 of a lot of secondary roots; enhance the absorbing capacity of the = roots,=20 making the plants grow sturdily with thick and dark green leaves. = During=20 the late growing stage, inter-tillage not only plays the role as = hilling=20 to support the plant but also reducing water-logging, controls = weeds, and=20 creates a fine soil environment for the succeeding crop. In = general,=20 inter-tillage should be conducted 3-5 times during the whole = growing and=20 development stage.

Top dressing:

To achieve = high=20 yields of stalk and sugar, top dressing should be conducted at the = correct=20 time. In general, the basal fertilizer is an organic one of = slow-release,=20 which the plant absorbs slowly. Sweet sorghum needs more = fertilizer during=20 the booting and heading stages. The fertilizer for top dressing = should be=20 quick acting in order to replenish nutrients, especially in young = ear=20 stage, which is also the vegetative and reproductive = stage.

If=20 there is more fertilizer available, the top dressing can be = applied in 3=20 stages: 1; after final thinning. The fertilized applies to weak = seedlings=20 should be more than that on others, the quick-acting fertilizer is = urea at=20 38-75 kg/ha. 2; before or after jointing, promoting = differentiation of the=20 young spike at 150-225 kg/ha. 3; in the earring stage at 38-75 = kg/ha. If=20 fertilizer is limited, the topdressing can be conducted once with = 150-225=20 kg/ha before or after jointing. To achieve high yield, it is = better to top=20 dress at 150-375 kg/ha. For summer sown sweet sorghum, = rush-planted based=20 on the better soil moisture content, the application often can not = be done=20 in time, as the growing and development stage is short, therefore=20 topdressing with a quick-acting nitrogenous fertilizer is more=20 important.

Watering and Drainage:

During the = whole=20 growth and development stage, it needs suitable moisture in the = soil.=20 Although it has resistance to water logging, if there is excessive = moisture and rainfall, it will hinder respiration of the roots, = reducing=20 absorbing capacity and cause disease especially during the = seedling stage.=20 During the late growth and development stage, excessive rainfall = will=20 cause a reduction in yield.

During the seedling stage, it = resists=20 drought a little. For restraining the growth of seedlings for root = development, irrigation is not conducted in this stage. However, = if the=20 soil moisture content is deficient when sowing is carried out and = it is a=20 long day period, irrigation is indispensable. Jointing stage is = also when=20 the vegetative and reproductive growth begin. During this period, = sweet=20 sorghum needs much more water. If water is not adequate it will = affect the=20 differentiation of young spike, the yield of seed grain, and the=20 internodes will shorten, the plant dwarfs and the stalk yield is = reduced.=20 Therefore, after fertilizer application, watering should be done = in good=20 time, in order to ensure differentiation of the stalk and young = spike and=20 normal growth and development. The bud and earring period is the = peak=20 period when sweet sorghum needs water. During this period, if the = climate=20 is dry and water is inadequate, the development of young spike is = affected=20 and leads to abortion of small spikes and the flower and even ear=20 production may stop. The blooming stage and milk period are = critical for=20 water. The moisture in soil directly affects the filling, and = obviously=20 affects the spike grain weight and thousand grain weight. In this = period,=20 if watering can be done, it will increase the yield of grain. In = the=20 meantime, it will accelerate transformation of the cane sugar and = its=20 accumulation in the stalk.

Harvest and Storage=20 Methods:

The harvest is different from that of grain = sorghum.=20 Both grain and stalk of sweet sorghum are harvested. The best = harvest time=20 is chosen according to both the main use aim and the maturity=20 stage.

1) Harvest for forage:

The suitable = harvest=20 period for forage is decided according to the nutrient value and = the=20 growth rate in different stages. If it is harvested too early, the = silage=20 will be acid and can not be preserved for a long time due to the = high=20 water content in the stalk. On the contrary, although the yield of = biomass=20 is higher, the utilization efficiency of nutrient in the stalks is = lower.

There is hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the stalk and = leaves and=20 care is needed to avoid livestock poisoning. The HCN content is = related to=20 the variety and growth stage. It is high at the seedling stage and = low at=20 seed maturation.

The best time to harvest for forage is = during the=20 milk ripe to wax-ripe stage. In some areas the farmer decides the = suitable=20 time for harvesting by the color of seed, and the best time is = when one=20 third of seeds develop the final colour.

2) Harvest for = sugar=20 production:

When it is planted for sugar and alcohol = production=20 the aim for harvesting is to gain the maximum sugar products from = the=20 stalks. Therefore, the best time for harvesting will be decided by = the=20 sugar yield.

At maturity the stalk contains most sugar and = this is=20 the stage to harvest for sugar or alcohol production. According to = the=20 tests in various regions, the peak periods of sugar content are = different.=20 Stalk sugar content is measured with a hand-held refractometer in order to harvest at = the=20 correct time. After harvesting the mature spike the stalk is left = in the=20 field to continue growth for about 5-20 days when the sugar = content and=20 purity reach the peak. In this case, the harvest will be a maximum = one for=20 both grain and sugar. For 1-3 weeks after harvesting the spike the = sugar=20 content and brix of the stalk increases.

3) Storage=20 methods:

The stalk sugar transforms after harvest so = extraction=20 must be done quickly or there will be sugar loss and difficulty in = extraction. The processing is often delayed and stalks need to be = stored=20 for a period of time.

Storage changes up to 48 hrs
Storage time % Juice extraction % Brix % Saccharine % Purity
00.0 45.2 19.3 14.4 74.2
24.0 44.6 20.0 14.8 73.2
48.0 44.2 20.5 14.6 71.0


When it is = harvested at=20 the end of summer it cannot be storage for two days because of the = high=20 temperatures, and the ratio of juice extraction will decrease and = the=20 content of deoxidized sugar will increase, which affects the = quality and=20 amount of sugar produced. If the stalks are left standing in the = field for=20 about one month after spike harvest in the cold weather of autumn, = most of=20 the sugar is preserved and sugar production will not affected. In = humid=20 circumstances it rots easily decreasing the quality of the=20 syrup.

Plant Diseases and Pests:

As a = whole,=20 sweet sorghum is less damaged by disease and pests than many = crops.=20 However, different varieties have different resistance levels. = Location=20 and growing conditions also determine infection=20 levels.

Diseases:

Sorghum smut: (Sphacelotheca sorghi).

See = Fig.: Head=20 symptom of smut damaged plant.

Sweet = sorghum often=20 suffers from smut resulting in no seeds. The plant is short and = the spike=20 eventually becomes black. This disease spreads in seed and=20 soil.

The general method for control is to rotate the crop = over at=20 least 3 years as spores can survive for 2-3 years in the soil. = Another=20 method is to mix some fungicide with the seeds because the seed is = one of=20 main ways of spread. Diseased plants should be removed and=20 burnt.

Rust: (Puccinia=20 purpurea).

Rust is one of the main leaf diseases. = Mauve=20 spots occur on both sides of the leaf at the beginning. = Protuberances on=20 the surface follow and the spores will finally be produced and = dispersed=20 to healthy plants. It reduces photosynthesis and affects the = synthesis and=20 transportation of products. High plant density, surplus N and bad = drainage=20 are conducive to rust development. Rust-tolerant varieties can be = used=20 with a suitable planting density. At the first stage of this = disease, 40%=20 Famished and 50% Daisen'an will be effective.

See Figs: = Rust=20 Damaged leaves of sweet sorghum; (lesions and pustules).

Anthracnose Leaf = Blight=20 and Stalk Rot: (Colletotrichum = graminicola).

Sweet=20 sorghum is susceptible to leaf anthracnose during the seedling = period and=20 at earring which often occur in the season of high temperature and = rain.=20 It can destroy the leaf and sheath and is disseminated by=20 seed.

Tolerant varieties such as M-81E should be planted. = Rotation=20 often kills the source of this disease in the soil. Seed = sterilisation is=20 effective by dipping the seeds in 50% Teijunte for about 12=20 hours.

See Fig.: Anthracnose damaged leaf of sweet=20 sorghum.

Pests:

Aphids:

Aphids = are=20 among the major pests of sweet sorghum (the sugarcane/sorghum = aphid -=20 Melanaphis sacchari and the maize = aphid -=20 Rhopalosiphum maidis). The = sugarcane aphid is=20 the most common. They suck the juice in the leaves and honeydew = becomes=20 scattered over their surface, becomes mouldy and black and hampers = photosynthesis until a critical state when the stalk and leaves = may=20 wither. If a lot of aphids occur before or after earring, ear = development=20 will cease and if serious will cause sterile spikes.

The = occurrence=20 is affected by temperature, rainfall, natural enemies, and occurs=20 intermittently or seriously. In general, during the last 10 days = of June=20 and the first 10 days of July, the mean temperature is high (over=20 22oC), the climate is dry with rainfall less than 25 = mm.=20 However if the temperature is 24oC and more on an = average in=20 each 10 days, and the rainfall is less than 5 mm, then a lot of = aphids=20 will probably occur in the late development period.

The = pest=20 situation should be frequently monitored. Once found, the leaves = should be=20 removed at once. Except for the variety 'M-81E', most varieties = are=20 sensitive to organophosphorus pesticides. Other chemicals may be = needed=20 for control.

See Fig.: Aphid damaged leaves of=20 sorghum.

The sorghum stem borer:

This pest = (Sesamia=20 cretica) causes stem damage.

Snout=20 moth:

The larvae damage the heart leaf. Bromicythrin = spray can=20 be used for control. If the larvae have entered the stalk several = grains=20 of furethrin can be scattered on the heart leaf. After earring, = the snout=20 moth larva may climb on the spike and damage it. Bromicythrin = spray can=20 also be applied on the spike.

Armyworms, mole crickets, = cutworms=20 etc. sometimes injure sweet sorghum but they are not usually = serious. When=20 planted in a new area, sparrows prefer to eat sweet sorghum seeds, = especially if the planting area is small. There is no really = effective=20 control method. One complex way is to wrap several spikes together = after=20 the milk stage. Red grain varieties, with higher tannin content = may be=20 more resistant to attack.

Ch. 4. Genetics and Breeding. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Genetics of Some = Characters:

It is=20 very important for breeders to understand the genetic inheritance = of=20 agronomic characters of sweet sorghum in order to breed new = varieties.=20 Research on genetics and some important characters are described. = It was=20 observed by Ashwathama et al., 1997, = that juice=20 extraction percentage, Brix value, non-reducing sugars, = total=20 sugars and inverts enzyme activity, etc differed significantly = among genotypes (Table=20 4.1) which shows that these attributes could be improved by=20 breeding.

Inheritance of Stalk Sugar = Content:

Sorghum=20 stalks can be generally divided into two types: dry - which has = little=20 juice in the stem when plant matures and full of sweet juice. Sweet=20 sorghum belongs to the second. Sorghum with over 8 degrees of = sugar=20 Brix in the juice is called sweet sorghum.

There have been = some=20 reports on the inheritance of sugar content of the stalk. = Non-sweet is=20 dominant over sweet, which is controlled by 2 'X' and 'x' genes = (Ayyangar,=20 1936). Until now most researches on the inheritance of sugar = content in=20 sweet sorghum stalk, including research by Cheng et al., 1986, have = been=20 limited to the hybridization between sweet sorghum varieties. = Sweet=20 sorghum is characterized by small grain and low grain yield. Many = sweet=20 sorghum varieties lately introduced from foreign countries such as = Rio,=20 Wray and Keller, although they have high biomass, their grain = yield is=20 only about 1500 kg per hectare, which is not suitable for China.=20 Varieties with both high grain yield and high sugar content in = stem juice=20 will be welcome in order not to compete with food production. In = such=20 case, it is very important to understand the heredity of sugar = under=20 hybridization between sweet sorghum and grain=20 sorghum involving dry stalk types. The following results were = obtained=20 in Shenyang Agricultural University.

(1) Stem sugar = content is a=20 quantitative inheritance controlled by minor multiple = genes.

In=20 Table=20 4.2 the variance of F2 in five combinations surpassed that of = the=20 parents and F1, which indicated that there was wide segregation in = the F2=20 population. The distribution of sugar content of the parents, F1 = and F2=20 was normal (Fig. 4.1). The sugar distribution in = 'Xinliang=20 7', ranged from 4-9, that in Roma from 10-18 and in the F1 from = 5.5-11.5.=20 The distribution in F2 was wider than others, from 6 to 18.5 and = mainly=20 caused by segregation besides some environmental = effect.

Sugar=20 content was controlled by minor multiple genes. Fig. 4.2 shows the sugar distribution = of Roma=20 and its combination with Xinliang 52. Xinliang 52 is a dry type = without=20 detectable sugar. The wide segregation of F2 of the combination = Xinliang=20 52/Roma reflected gene recombination, leading to many genotypes. = Comparing=20 the variation in Table 4.2, F2 was 10.267, Roma was 2.5415, the = variation=20 of F2 was 4 times that of Roma, and the mean sugar in F2 was = 12.893 -=20 lower than that of Roma at 14.034. Thus, the genotype controlling = sugar of=20 Xinliang 52 can be known from the figures and the curve of = segregation in=20 the F2. It was the same as that of Xinliang 7 with low sugar. From = the=20 above it is obvious that, if only one parent belonged to sweet = sorghum,=20 the sugar degree of the F2 population can be measured. The sugar = of the F2=20 population, with wide continuous variation and normal = distribution, showed=20 that sugar content is controlled by minor multiple = genes.

(2)=20 The genes controlling low sugar content was partially=20 dominant.

The sugar degrees of F1 from 3 combinations = in which=20 the parents were juicy types were lower than the average value of = their=20 parents. For the F1 in combination, Xinliang 7/Roma, its average = of the=20 sugar degree was lower than both parents by 1.345, in other = combination,=20 Jingliang 5/Roma, the sugar degree of F1 was lower than both = parents by=20 1.03, and F1 in the early maturing Hegari/Roma was lower than both = parents=20 by 1.1. Therefore, their average heterosis of F1 was negative, = -13.1 %, -11.2=20 % and 10 % respectively. This proved that genes controlling low = sugar=20 content were partially dominant; the genes controlling high sugar = content=20 were recessive.

(3) The heritability of sugar degree = (Brix) in=20 stalks.

The broad heritability of sugar degree in three = combinations, whose parents were juicy types Xinliang 7/Roma, = Jingliang=20 5/Roma and early maturing Hegari/Roma was calculated through = variation of=20 their parents, F1 and F2, they were 0.65, 0.79 and 0.81 = respectively and=20 the average value was 0.75. The sugar degree of F2 was 12.71 and = that of=20 F3 was 12.43, the regression coefficient, b=3D-0.3226, and = regression=20 formula, a =3D Y-6X =3D 16.53. The value was significant for the = regression=20 relation, which indicated that the sugar was determined by = additive gene=20 effect.

The broad heritability of sugar degree in the stem = is not=20 high, showing that the character is easily affected by=20 environment.

The effect of soil nitrogen content on stem = sugar=20 content was observed. For example, for the sweet variety, Roma, = which was=20 planted in soil lacking nitrogen, its sugar degree was over 16 = degrees=20 Brix, but in soil with rich nitrogen it was only 14 = Brix.

Because=20 sugar Brix is mainly determined by the additive effect of genes = and=20 because the trait of high sugar content is recessive, high sugar = content=20 of F2 plants can be steadily inherited. Plants with high sugar can = be=20 selected in the early generations of a breeding programme, but the = growing=20 condition should be carefully controlled.

(4) The = correlation=20 between sugar Brix in stems and other agronomic = characters.

Ten=20 plants from each combination, a total of 50 plants, were sampled = to=20 measure sugar Brix, plant height, date of blossom and kernel = weight. The=20 correlations between sugar degree and other characters such as = 1000 kernel=20 weight, plant height and blossom date were calculated and the = correlation=20 coefficients were -0.472, 0.007 and 0.2749 respectively. Their = values=20 indicated that the correlation between sugar Brix degree and = 1000-kernel=20 weight was very significant, but that of the other two were not. = All these=20 belonged to the correlation of phenotype because the measurements = were=20 made for the phenotypes of F2 plants. It was found that there was = no=20 correlation between stem sugar Brix and plant height or blossom = date.=20 Significant negative correlation between sugar degree and = 1000-kernel=20 weight was found, which showed that the plants with high sugar in = hybrid=20 offsprings had low kernel weight. This seemed to be the reason why = sweet=20 sorghum has small seeds. Research on 57 sweet sorghum varieties = from China=20 and abroad showed that only 21% of varieties had their 1000 kernel = weight=20 surpassing 20g and only 3.5 % of varieties surpassed 30g. In order = to=20 select the plants with both high sugar content and high kernel = weight from=20 hybrids a large population is required.

Stalk=20 Texture:

Research by Zhongmin, 1979, showed that stalk = textures=20 of sweet sorghum could be divided into 4 groups during waxing or = maturity=20 stages: porous without juice; porous and juicy with low sugar = content (7=20 degrees Brix); compact juicy but low sugar content (10 Brix = degree);=20 compact juicy with higher sugar content (>11 degrees Brix). He = also=20 found that characteristic and colour of the leaf main veins had a=20 significant relation with stem textures. The correlation = coefficiency=20 between wax vein and compact and juicy characters was r=3D0.9251,=20 significant at the 1% level. The correlation between mid-type main = vein=20 and porous and juicy was r=3D0.7697, also significant at 1%. Under = this=20 relation, selection of plants with a waxy main vein in the = breeding=20 programme has a higher possibility of recovering an ideal variety = when=20 breeding for dual use of grain and sugar. At least one parent must = be=20 compact in order to get progeny with a compact = stem.

Plant=20 height:

Tall is dominant over dwarf stalk; i.e. = crossing a tall=20 stalk variety with dwarf one will result in a tall hybrid. In = addition,=20 strong heterosis for stalk height can be found in the F1 = generation (Table=20 4.3).

Variation coefficient of some important=20 characters:

Cao Wenbo et al., 1980, working on = variation=20 and heritability of factors that build sugar yield found that = there are=20 great differences in variation coefficients between different = characters.=20 Contents of starch, reducing sugars and sucrose and Brix have = higher=20 variation than per plant weight, plant height and juice extraction = (%) (Table=20 4.4) which showed that the contents of starch, reducing sugar = and=20 sucrose could be easily improved through breeding.

Table = 4.4 showed=20 that these characters have higher heritability with an average = value of=20 81.55%. Environmental effects on these characters are relatively = small.=20 Among these characters, heritability of reducing sugar was = highest, which=20 shows that this character is affected by environment, and it can = be easily=20 improved by phenotypic selection.

Relationship between = grain=20 yield and sugar content of stalk:

Broadhead, 1969 and = 1972,=20 thought that grain production didn't decrease with the increase of = sugar=20 yield. But six years of experiments (Cao Junfeng, 1982), showed that = there was a=20 significantly negative relationship between grain yield and stalk = sugar.=20 His research also showed that it is possible to select varieties = with high=20 grain yield and higher sugar content.

Sweet Sorghum=20 Breeding:

For developing new varieties it is a = prerequisite=20 that the variety should possess a series of elite characters under = the=20 environmental, cultivation, & economic conditions of a given = region.=20 The determination of breeding objectives is the first step = in=20 breeding programmes, which determines whether or not breeding work = will be=20 successful. Concrete breeding objectives depend not only on the = purpose of=20 new varieties one plans to breed, but also the region, cropping = system=20 etc. in which new varieties will be planted. High yield, good = quality,=20 stability, and wide adaptability are the common requirements for = new=20 varieties. For different end uses in sweet sorghum the breeding = objectives=20 should be as follows:

For alcohol making: high biomass, = wide=20 adaptability, high sugar content, resistance to major diseases, = suitable=20 stalk diameter (about 1.5-2.0 cm, easily crushed), lodging = resistance,=20 high water use efficiency. Different maturities should also be = considered=20 in order extend the milling process.

For sugar refining: = apart from=20 those characters above, sucrose content should be high enough to = yield a=20 higher percent crystal sugar.

For syrup: as for those = varieties for=20 alcohol making, and sucrose content should be low and soluble = sugars such=20 as glucose and fructose should be high.

For fodder: apart = from high=20 biomass yield, wide adaptability, disease resistance, lodging = resistance,=20 etc. low CN content and regenerative ability should be=20 included.

1). Introduction and breeding by=20 selection:

Introduction is one of the common means of = plant=20 improvement, with advantages of short time and early gains etc. = Introduced=20 varieties could not only be used directly in production, but are = also=20 important material for breeding programmes. Most of the varieties = that are=20 cultivated in commercial production were introduced from abroad;=20 especially the United States, e.g. Rio, M-81E, Keller, = BJK19=20 etc. and almost all new varieties developed in China are derived = from=20 these introduced varieties.

Key tips for attention when=20 introducing varieties:

- Similarity of eco-environment = between=20 original locations of developed varieties and the target region = for these=20 varieties. Introduction is likely to be easier and successful = between=20 regions with the same latitude. Usually U.S. cultivars have = performed well=20 when planted in China.

- Use of the changing law of = agronomic=20 characters when a variety is planted in a different region. Sweet = sorghum=20 is sensitive to sunlight. A cultivar planted in a high latitude = may mature=20 earlier than when planted in a lower latitude. So when = introduction of a=20 cultivar takes place from a high latitude to a low latitude, a = later=20 maturing variety is a better choice, and vice versa. For = example,=20 Rio is mid maturing and 300 cm tall but when planted in Hainan = Island with=20 short sunlight, it becomes early maturing, and the height = decreases to=20 less than 200 cm.

- It may result in great loss if a = disease or=20 pest is brought in with an introduction from another country. New=20 varieties should be officially introduced to quarantine to avoid=20 problems.

- Experiment before planting a large area. It is = high=20 risk to introduce a large amount of seeds at one time without = prior=20 testing.

- Domestication or selection. A new species or = cultivar=20 may not accustom readily to a new environment, but after years of=20 domestication and careful selection it may be survive and grow = well.=20 Introductions may be not suitable for direct use in production = because of=20 impurity or other factors. In this case, selection of good plants = among=20 its population may be needed. A new variety Yuantian No 1 derived = from a=20 Rio population (See Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4) is an example.

2). = Breeding=20 by hybridization (Cross Breeding):

Significance of = cross=20 breeding:

Cross breeding is the most common means of = improving=20 crops. The characteristic of the parents can be combined into the = new=20 variety. In nature variation appears after natural pollination = which is=20 the foundation of biological evolution. Through cross selection = and=20 evaluation, not only new types of lines with the merits of two = parents are=20 produced, but also new lines with characters that don't exist in = the two=20 parents can be obtained.

Crossing is just one means of = promoting=20 gene recombination. Hybrids recovered after crossing are = heterozygous, and=20 genes will segregate and recombine. It is necessary for breeders = to select=20 and purify the desired types during segregation and combination, = then do a=20 series of experiments for checking their productivity, quality, = resistance=20 to adverse stresses, adaptability, etc before officially releasing = for=20 production.

In order to achieve the concrete breeding = objective,=20 and make full use of the creative characteristics of cross = breeding, it is=20 prerequisite to make a detailed breeding plan, which includes = breeding=20 objectives, choice of parents, planting and crossing plans, and = ways of=20 handling the resulting progenies.

Choice of=20 parents:

Parents should have more elite characters than = shortcomings. Desired and undesired characters can be = complemented. It is=20 better to take a local elite cultivar as one parent due to its = better=20 productivity and adaptability. Parents with different origin or = belonging=20 to different ecotypes can more easily result in a better variety = due to=20 possible larger genetic diversity.

Parents should have high = combining ability. Not all varieties with elite characters are = good=20 breeding parents. Parents with both desired characters and higher=20 combining ability have a higher possibility of producing a = successful=20 variety.

Crossing methods:

Which one is to be = the=20 female and which one the male?; How to use more parents? etc. are=20 important factors that affect the breeding efficiency.

a). = Single=20 cross: A single cross is a cross between 2 parents, written as = A=C2=B4B or A/B,=20 is used when 2 parents have enough elite characters and their = desired and=20 undesired characters can be basically complemented. Attention = should be=20 paid to reciprocal crosses to exploit all differences.

b). = Multiple=20 cross: A multiple cross involves 3 or more parents, and 2 or more = crosses.=20 Generally a single cross between two parents is made before = another cross=20 with the third parent, and if necessary, more crosses may be = needed in a=20 particular sequence.

There are several of methods used in = multiple=20 crosses, such as a 3 way cross, A/B/C; double cross, A/B//C/B = (cross=20 between two single crosses A/B and C/B); a 4 way cross, A/B//C/D,=20 A/B/C/3/D (crosses in sequence) etc.

c). Multiple parental=20 pollination: One parent is pollinated with mixed pollen of = different=20 parents. This cross is seldom used in sweet sorghum = breeding.

d).=20 Backcross: A backcross is a cross between a hybrid and one of its = parents.=20 This cross is frequently used in sweet sorghum breeding especially = in=20 sterile line breeding.

Handling of hybrid progenies: = (Fig 4.5).

a). Pedigree method: = The=20 pedigree method is the most common method of handling the = progenies. A=20 plant is selected from the first segregated progeny (F2 for single = cross,=20 F3 for multiple crosses), and then seeds from each single plant = are sown=20 in one row, which is called as a plant row, or a pedigree. Single = plants=20 are selected in the better pedigrees until a pedigree with stable = desired=20 characters is found. Then yielding trials begin until officially=20 released.

b). Bulk method: Breeding material is sown by=20 combination; the first selection is not made until more than 80% = of plants=20 in the advanced generation are homozygous, around F6-F7. The = followed=20 generation will be pedigree or plant lines and good lines are = chosen for=20 advanced experiments.

c). Derived line method: F2 or F3 = derived=20 lines are populations coming from a selected single plant of F2 or = F3.=20 Selection is made in the F2 or F3 generation; derived F2 or F3 = lines are=20 advance generation after generation without selection of single = plant, but=20 yield test is done for every line for reference, and lines with = obvious=20 shortcomings are culled until important characters don't segregate = (F5-F6). The best single plants are then selected in the best = lines which=20 are sown by plant rows. Then the best line is picked out for = advance=20 testing until official release.

d). Single seed descent = method: One=20 grain per plant is harvested in the early generation of a breeding = programme and mixed for the next generation's sowing; single plant = selection is not done until advanced = generations.

Pollination=20 methodology:

Selection of typical plants; - Covering = spike of=20 both parents with paper bag (Fig. 4.6); - Emasculation; - = Pollination;-=20 Labeling and replacing paper bags with net bags (Fig. 4.6a) to avoid bird = damage.

3).=20 Utilization of Heterosis:

Heterosis or hybrid vigour = is a=20 phenomenon which the hybrid expresses advantage over its parents = for some=20 characters or comprehensive characteristics. Utilization of = heterosis has=20 played an important role in increasing agricultural production and = food=20 security.

a). Breeding and improvement of inbred lines. -=20 Development of inbred lines is the most important basis of = heterosis.=20 Sweet sorghum is an often cross pollinating crop whose genetic = marker is=20 often not homozygous. It is necessary to self cross by covering = with paper=20 bags to isolate plants from heterozygous pollen as a prerequisite = to=20 obtaining higher heterosis.

b). Use of male sterile lines. = - Use in=20 heterosis is a cost effective way because its male flowering organ = is=20 small making laborious manual emasculation unnecessary. Some new = hybrid=20 varieties of sweet sorghum were developed in China. Fig. 4.7 shows one in field = production=20 developed in the Institute for Application of Atomic Energy, CAAS. = See Fig. 4.7a for spike details of the = male sterile=20 and restorer lines and the resulting hybrid.

c). Combining = ability=20 and its determination. - Combining ability is an important concept = in=20 heterosis breeding, and means yield expression of a hybrid derived = from an=20 inbred line or sterile line and another special line (special = combining=20 ability) or a series of lines or synthetic hybrids (general = combining=20 ability).

Methods of determination combining=20 ability:

Top-cross method: - Select a population with = wide=20 genetic basis as a tester to determine combination ability of an = inbred=20 line; Diallele cross method: - As many crosses as possible are = made with=20 inbred lines to be tested then general and special combining = ability are=20 calculated with an established math model and - Multiple cross = method:=20 take a few elite lines as testers, make crosses with a series of = inbred=20 lines to be tested. For example, take A, B, C, D as testers, cross = with=20 300 lines that are to be tested; resulting in 1200 hybrids. Sow in = sequence or by the space comparison method for yield = testing.

4).=20 Induced Mutation Breeding:

Induced mutation breeding = is=20 where the initial material is induced with mutagens (such as x = ray, gamma=20 ray, neutron, electron beam, proton, space environment, EMS, NaN3, = etc.)=20 to generate genetic mutations and then desirable mutants are = selected from=20 the subsequent progenies. Further lines are then selected as in=20 conventional breeding programmes. See Fig. 4.8: An agricultural = Standard=20 Cobalt-60 Source.

The use of mutations is a valuable = supplementary=20 approach to plant breeding, particularly when it is desired to = improve one=20 or two easily identifiable traits in an otherwise well adapted = breeding=20 line. The main advantages of this approach are that the basic = genotype of=20 the original variety is only slightly altered, and that the time = required=20 for breeding the improved variety can be shortened compared to = crossing to=20 achieve the same result. A desired mutation can be recovered in a=20 homozygous stage as early as in the M2 or M3 generation as = compared with=20 F6 or F7 in the case of hybridization.

Handling & = selection=20 of mutation breeding materials: (Characteristics of different=20 generations).

M1: - Heterogeneous (different plants will = carry=20 different mutations); - Heterozygous at mutated loci chimera = (meridinal,=20 periclinal or sectorial chimera); - Often sterile; - Exhibit = non-heritable=20 direct effects of the mutagen, often reduced in vigor (Fig = 4.11-4.14=20 below) and generally, no selection is done in this = generation.

M2:=20 - Segregates for mutations; - Effects of recessive mutations may = be=20 observed, such as chlorophyll mutation; - No direct effects of = mutagens=20 and selection usually begins in the M2 generation or later=20 generation.

M3 and M4: - Mutants are gradually purifying.=20 Evaluation can be started.

Process of mutation breeding = and=20 effects (Shown in the following figures):

Fig. 4.9 Process of mutation = breeding; Fig. 4.10 Variation of sweet sorghum = spikes=20 after proton irradiation; Fig. 4.11-12 Variation in seedlings = of sweet=20 sorghum after proton treatment and Fig. 4.13-14 Seedling variation after = Space=20 environment (left) or gamma- ray treatment = (right).

Part II Comprehensive Utilization. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Part II covers:

Chapter 5: Ethanol=20 Production: Significance of Developing Sweet Sorghum for = Alcohol=20 Production; Components in Sweet Sorghum Stalks that can be used to = make=20 Alcohol; Harvesting, Transportation and storage of the stalks;=20 Technologies of Ethanol ("Chinese liquor") Production from Sweet = Sorghum=20 Stalks by Solid Fermentation; Technologies of Ethanol Production = from=20 Sweet Sorghum Stalks by Liquid Fermentation; Appendix I: = Palletizing=20 Machine for Yeast Cells Immobilized Carrier Production and = Appendix II:=20 Sugar Analysis.

Chapter 6: Sugar Production: The = History of=20 Sugar Production from Sweet Sorghum; Varieties for Sugar = Production;=20 Processing the Syrup; Some Questions and Discussion and Concluding = Remarks.

Chapter 7: Silage from Sweet Sorghum: = Silage=20 Practice and its Development; Significance of Developing Silage; = Silage=20 Principles; The Factors Affecting the Quality of Silage; = Characteristics=20 of Good Silage Procedures; Types of Silage; Silage Additives; = Equipment=20 Used; Advantage of Sweet Sorghum as Raw Material; Key Points and = Other=20 Points.

Chapter 8: The Agro-ecosystem of Sweet = Sorghum:=20 Introduction; System Structure of the Agro-ecosystem; Results and = Cost=20 Benefit Analyses; Analysis of Benefits and Some Questions and=20 Discussions.

Chapter 9: Other = Uses.

Ch. 5. Ethanol Production from Stalks. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Chapter 5 covers: Significance of Developing Sweet = Sorghum=20 for Alcohol Production; Components in Sweet Sorghum Stalks that = can be=20 used to make Alcohol; Harvesting, Transportation and storage of = the=20 stalks; Technologies of Ethanol ("Chinese liquor") Production from = Sweet=20 Sorghum Stalks by Solid Fermentation; Technologies of Ethanol = Production=20 from Sweet Sorghum Stalks by Liquid Fermentation; Appendix I: = Pelletizing=20 Machine for Yeast Cells Immobilized Carrier Production and = Appendix II:=20 Sugar Analysis.

Significance of Developing Sweet Sorghum = for=20 Alcohol Production:

According to estimations, solid = fuel,=20 natural gas oil shale, bituminous sands etc. are used for = generating=20 electricity 9=C3=971012 KWH in the world every year. It = was=20 estimated by the United Nations in 1994 that the existing known = reserves=20 of petroleum will be only enough for 75 years since = 1994.

Experts=20 estimated that the existing known oil reserves of China=20 would be used up in 17 years. Since 1993, China has become a net = oil=20 importing country. About 340,000 barrels of oil are imported every = day on=20 average. But by the year 2005, this figure is expected to reach = 1,400,000=20 barrels/day.

In recent years the energy crisis and air = pollution=20 have seriously affected daily life. The oil price has been raised = several=20 times. Development of recyclable green energy has attracted great=20 attention from the experts and officials. Use of ethanol as a fuel = for=20 cars either alone or mixed with gasoline is an alternative and air = pollution can be reduced by using alcohol.

There are many = raw=20 material sources that can be used to produce alcohol, among which = sweet=20 sorghum is one of the best alternatives for the following = reasons:=20 High biomass yield, High content of fermentable material, Wide=20 adaptability; Resistance to diseases, pests, drought, = saline-alkaline=20 conditions and water logging.

Research has shown that 6106=20 liters/ha of alcohol could be produced, which is much higher than = for=20 other crops, e.g. yam 1790 liters/ha, sugarcane=20 4700liters/ha and maize 1883litres/ha.

The rural = production=20 structure is under re-regulation; the area under food crops is = being=20 diverted to non-food crops due to stagnation of grain prices and = yields,=20 and reduced profitability. Sweet sorghum can potentially reverse = this=20 trend due to its multi-purpose nature. While maintaining the usual = grain=20 productivity, there is value addition to the stalk. Its various = economical=20 uses such as production of silage, syrup, and alcohol are being = explored.=20 Alcohol production may stimulate an industry that promotes the = rural=20 economy, and make use of arid and saline/alkaline areas for income = generation.

5.2 Components in Sweet Sorghum Stalks that = can be=20 Used to Make Alcohol:

These are: are glucose, fructose, sucrose, and starch. Measurements of these = components for=20 6 varieties by Shenyang Agricultural University are listed in Table=20 5.1 which shows that the sucrose content is predominant, than = glucose,=20 fructose and starch.

Sucrose, glucose, and fructose can be=20 fermented directly by saccharomycetes to produce = alcohol. Starch=20 can only be fermented after it is dextrinized and saccarified and = turned=20 into fermentable reducing sugar.

As shown in Table5.1, the = stem=20 juice starch content is very low, and contributes little to = alcohol=20 production, but has a good saccharine source for alcohol = production.=20 Alcohol production with sweet sorghum stem as a raw material does = not=20 require complicated technology and expensive equipment. Also the=20 production cycle is short because of procedures involving = dextrizing and=20 saccarification is not needed. These contribute to a lower alcohol = production cost.

Although the starch content is low, it = cannot be=20 ignored for large scale industrial production. Steps should be = taken to=20 use this limited amount of starch in the juice to increase alcohol = yield.

Harvesting, Transportation and storage of the=20 stalks:

Ripening Monitoring:

It is = necessary to=20 determine the period of optimum sugar content for harvesting. The = main=20 factors affecting the ripening are: Climate; Soil properties = (physical,=20 chemical and microbiological); Cultural practices; and=20 Variety.

Methods and criteria to determine the ripening = degree are:=20 i) Aspect and age of the plantation - (empirical and not a = reliable since=20 the ripening degree is not measured) and ii) Technical methods = based on=20 the measurement of stalk sugar content can be carried out in the = field=20 using a refractometer or in the laboratory.

With the = field=20 refractometer: i) Select 15 to 20 stalks/ha by random sampling. = ii) Cut=20 and squeeze or bend the mid stalk section to extract juice. iii) = Measure=20 the Brix degrees with a hand = refractometer. The=20 Brix must be higher than 15o for sweet = sorghum.

For=20 laboratory analysis the measurement of the sucrose content in the = juice is=20 carried out at the optimum time as indicated by the field = refractometer;=20 i) Same sampling technique as used for the field test; ii) Juice=20 extraction is done in the laboratory using the whole stalk; iii)=20 Laboratory analyses measure the following parameters: Brix (by=20 refractometry), poll degree (by polararimeter) and reducing=20 sugars.

Although testing in the field for total sugar = content in=20 the sweet sorghum stem juice is not convenient, it can be = estimated by=20 measuring Brix. Research shows that significant linear correlation = exists=20 between Brix degree measured with a hand sugar refractometer and = the total=20 sugar. Regression equations can be calculated for a specified = variety in=20 order to estimate the total sugars. A general regression equation = of total=20 sugar and Brix degree has been developed for sweet sorghum by = Shenyang=20 Agricultural University, China: y=3D -10.24 + 1.974x, where y is = total=20 sugar, x is Brix. With this regression equation, the total sugar = content=20 can be estimated by measuring only the Brix = degree.

Changes in=20 Brix of Stalk Juice during Plant Development:

It is = important=20 to know of Brix change in the stem of sweet sorghum for monitoring = the=20 ripening. Research has shown that the stem juice Brix degree is = lower=20 before heading. After that, with the grain forming, the Brix = degree=20 linearly increases until its maximum at maturity (Table=20 5.2).

Table 5.2 shows that the Brix degree changes and = the=20 maximum Brix degree period are not same in the six varieties. The = maximum=20 value is highly linked to grain maturity. Therefore, it is better = to=20 harvest sweet sorghum stalks at the grain maturing stage in which = both=20 high sugar content in the stem and good grain yield can be=20 obtained.

Manual or mechanical = harvesting:

For manual=20 harvesting cutting should be done as close as possible to the soil = allowing a better utilization of the plant and a better prevention = of=20 residual pests and diseases build-up in the field after harvest. = The=20 stalks are then stacked in the field ready for=20 loading.

With mechanical harvesting - The machine cuts and = removes=20 the tops; Stalks are stored in provisional harvest bins or = directly in the=20 truck; Stalks are cut in pieces of 25 to 30 cm or left whole. The=20 advantages of mechanical harvesting are: Lower content of earth in = the=20 stalks; Higher productivity (t/ha/day); Reduction in labour costs. = The=20 disadvantages are: Less time between harvesting and milling; = Increase in=20 foam production during fermentation; Cannot be used in hilly = areas;=20 Presents an irregular cut due to the soil irregularities and the = High=20 investment for equipment purchase.

Loading, transport, = discharge=20 and storage:

Manual loading is the most common in China = (2 to 4=20 persons are required to fill a truck) and mechanical is by use of=20 mechanical arms. (NB: for silage the stalks can be mechanically = chopped=20 and loaded - see picture - in one operation). = Transport is=20 by animals or trucks, tractors, train or barges. Discharge = - uses the=20 following equipment: Non-rotator cranes (movable or fixed); = Rotator=20 cranes; Alternative or continuous scrapers; Vehicles with = self-discharge:=20 Trucks with dumping bucket (top and side) - the load is discharged = in an=20 inclined feeder, normally at the angle of 45 degrees; Trucks with = moving=20 buckets (basket-like) - the stalks are tied with chains and = Tractors and=20 trailers with nets.

Weighing occurs at main gate of the industrial plant and has the = following=20 objectives: Agricultural control; Control of the transport = payment;=20 Control of the raw material payment and Industrial = control.

It must=20 be sufficient to sustain 24 hours of plant operation since stalks = cutting=20 occurs only during the day. The following equation can be used to=20 determine the storage capacity: S =3D 12 C + A, where: S =3D = storage capacity=20 for the nocturnal period; C =3D milling capacity and A =3D 3 C=20 (usually).

Technologies of Ethanol ("Chinese liquor") = Production=20 from Sweet Sorghum Stalks by Solid = Fermentation:

Brief=20 introduction:

In 1977, white spirit was successfully = made from=20 sweet sorghum stalks by means of solid fermentation in Henan = province.=20 Later, through years of experiment, the technology of direct = fermentation=20 of chopped sweet sorghum stalks was improved greatly and this = technology=20 has been introduced to many places where white spirits were=20 produced.

Procedure for Producing Chinese Liquor from = Sweet=20 Sorghum Stalks:

- Stalk preparation: after harvest, = leaves,=20 root, and mud are removed. Good stalks are the prerequisite for = producing=20 high quality wine.
- Cutting: chop with silage harvester, = silage=20 choppers or other machine or tools into 3 cm small lengths.
-=20 Incubation: incubate with 8-10% yeast. Chopped stalks: Yeast =3D = 8:1.
-=20 Packing the silo: the chopped material is put into a silo after = mixed with=20 yeast; then pressed to compact, and the silo covered with plastic=20 film.
- Fermentation: fermentation time, 3-4 days.
- = Distillation:=20 First remove silage and place in a solid steam distillation pot. = Then=20 distill, sending the vapor to a distillation tower for ethanol=20 production.
- Blending: Different concentration of distilled = alcohol=20 and additives are added to give a particular flavour. Sweet = sorghum liquor=20 may be mixed with rice, wheat, sweet potato, maize, and yam etc. = liquor, or=20 bottled as a pure product.
- Bottling, sterilizing = (65oC for=20 30min) and labeling

Technology Issues:

- = Preparation=20 of stalks: Leaves and roots which contain little sugar should be = removed=20 before chopping. Otherwise the yield and quality of the products = would be=20 affected.

- Cutting the stalks: Chopped stalks swell = efficiently,=20 which is beneficial for saccarification and liquor release. The = enlarged=20 surface area allows more yeast contact and gives a more complete=20 fermentation. It is more convenient for handling (filling and = emptying=20 silos and stills) and gives higher alcohol production.

The = stalks=20 should be cut as small as possible because small chopped stalks = are not=20 sticky, easy to keep separated and don't form clumps that affect = air=20 penetration. However it is not easy to cut the stalks small with = popular=20 grass cutters. It is better to use cutters that are not too sharp = because=20 a blunt cutter can press the stalks during cutting which makes the = chopped=20 lengths stay loose and soft.

- Yeast: The quality of yeast is directly related to the = quality and=20 yield of the resultant wine. Fresh yeasts are recommended for use = in the=20 fermentation. The essential parameters of the yeast are: Able to = work at=20 pH 0.3-0.4; Yeast concentration 1.0-1.2 =C3=97108; = Spore rate 20-30%=20 and Amount of dead cells, 1-3%.

- Use of yeast: Because the = main=20 component of sweet sorghum stalks that is subject to fermentation = is=20 reducing sugar, the yeast dose used should not be too large nor = too small.=20 When large, it will be wasted, if small it will cause incomplete=20 fermentation. The common yeast dose is about 4-8% of dried stalk=20 weight.

- Addition of fermentation starter: The = fermentation=20 starter, (Chinese technology), is mildewed grain or other food, = used=20 because there is a large amount of microorganisms in the starter = and they=20 secrete various enzymes (such as diastase), carbohydrates, and proteins which = can=20 promote the transformation of starch and protein into sugars and amino acids etc. While sugars are = the energy=20 source of yeast, amino acids are important nutrients for=20 yeast.

There are many kinds of fermentation starters in = China's=20 brewery industry. Generally they are classified by the different = materials=20 and different methods used to make the starter, or the = microorganism=20 species, additives etc.

The main kinds of the fermentation = starters=20 are:
Wheat starter: Made from mildewed wheat, mainly used in = yellow=20 wine making;
Small starter: Made from rice powder. Its volume = is small,=20 so it is 'small starter'. It is mainly used in yellow wine and = 'small=20 starter wine' brewing.
Red starter: Is made from cooked rice. = Mainly=20 used in 'red wine' brewing.
Large starter: A kind of wheat = starter with=20 larger volume, which is mainly used in a distilled liquor brewery. =
Rapid starter or grain skin starter: Made from mildewed grain = coats.=20 At present, this starter is the most popular one in wine=20 breweries.

Generally, rapid starter and large starter are = used in=20 sweet sorghum stalk fermentation.

Rapid starter: 100kg = fresh=20 chopped stalk is inoculated with 1.0 kg rapid starter (it is = available in=20 many breweries) and 10 kg yeast. The main role of the rapid = starter is to=20 shorten the fermentation time to 3-4 days.

Larger starter: = 100kg=20 fresh chopped stalk is mixed with 18-20 kg large starter. The = fermentation=20 is 20-25 days, much longer than with rapid starter.

- Water = addition: Water is an important raw material in alcohol making, = especially=20 liquor making. The main function of water addition is: i) = Dissolving role:=20 The yeast is composed of 70-75% of water. Most of nutrients that = the yeast=20 needs can only be used when dissolved in water. ii) Adjusting = role: Water=20 has important roles in adjusting acidity, starting temperature, = and=20 alcohol content etc. usually the quantity of supplemented water = should be=20 around 60-70%.

- Packing the silo: Fermentation is the = process of=20 yeast multiplication in which sugars in the chopped stalks is = decomposed=20 to alcohol and carbon dioxide. Heat is released which makes = temperature of=20 the fermentation silo rise. When sugars are near to being = decomposed,=20 temperature starts lowering gradually with a dispersal of heat. = Wine=20 flavor can then be tasted in the fermented chopped stalks. When no = bubbling sound cannot be heard in the fermented chopped stalks, = and no=20 sweetness can be tasted, this shows that the fermentation is = finished and=20 distillation can start.

- The starting temperature: = Generally=20 16-18oC is suitable. Solid fermentation is low = temperature=20 fermentation and the temperature is 30-32oC. When the=20 temperature rises to 35-50oC, yeast begins to die and = various=20 undesirable bacteria begin multiplying. Fermentation at low = temperature is=20 an effective way of keeping yeasts actively multiplying, strongly=20 tolerating the alcohol, and inhibiting growth of undesired = bacteria. If=20 the starting temperature is too high, yeasts will multiply very = rapidly,=20 which makes the temperature rise too fast in the early stage of=20 fermentation. In this case, yeasts stop fermentation too early;=20 fermentation cannot be completed and this results in low alcohol=20 production.

- Acidity at the beginning: Acidity (pH) is = also=20 directly related to yeast multiplication. The appropriate pH is = 4.5-5.0.=20 Acidity can be used to control the multiplication of undesirable = bacteria.=20 When pH is <4.2, yeasts can multiply normally, but the = multiplication=20 of undesired bacteria is inhibited. Generally, the appropriate = starting pH=20 is 5.2-5.7.

- Fermentation process: In order to ferment an=20 aerobically, it is necessary to mix the chopped stalks evenly with = yeasts,=20 water and other additives before filling the fermentation silo and = compact=20 the mass to exclude the air. Then the silo is sealed with = polythene nelson=20 film and mud.

The first day after filling the silo the = yeast=20 multiply, which is responsible for the gradually rise of the silo=20 temperature. On the second day the temperature may rise to around=20 25oC. On the third day the temperature can be up to=20 30-32oC. The acidity increases gradually, and so does = the=20 alcohol content. The temperature tends to be stable or rise a = little. With=20 the linear rise of the acidity, a large amount of yeast begins to = die. It=20 is time to distill when the temperature begins to drop and = fermentation=20 ceases. The fermentation varies from 3 to 4 days. If the starting=20 temperature is low, fermentation time can be longer and=20 vice-versa.

- Distillation: Principle: The principle of=20 fermentation is to use the different boiling points of different = substance=20 to separate various volatile components (alcohol, water, and other = substances) in the fermented brew. The boiling point of alcohol is = 78oC, which is lower than other components. While = distilling,=20 alcohol first becomes vapour and then on cooling to turns=20 liquid.

At the beginning of distillation, the alcohol = concentration=20 is high; later on, the concentration become lower. The alcohol = solution=20 from distillation is must be re-distilled if the concentration is = lower=20 than 45% alcohol (v/v).It may be necessary to distill several = times until=20 the desired concentration is reached.

For distillation = equipment=20 suited for a small solid state distillery and see Fig. 5.1 and for a simple = distillation unit=20 suitable for the household see Fig. 5.2.

- Blending: Raw = alcohol=20 solution from distillation in different batches, different = seasons, and=20 different silos has different concentrations and different = qualities.=20 Mixing different distilled products is done to give a final=20 product.

- Adjusting flavor: After the liquor is adjusted = to a=20 certain concentration, essence is added in to the solution to give = a=20 certain flavour. The essences often used are ethyl acetate, ethyl=20 hexameter, ethyl lactate, etc.

- Bottling, sterilizing and=20 labeling: This is the last step. Sterilization at 65 o = C for 30=20 minutes is commonly done. Bottling should be carried out in clean = hygienic=20 conditions into clean sterilized bottles. The label carries = important=20 information about the product.

Methods of Ethanol Production; Liquid = Fermentation. Return=20 To Table of Contents

There are two methods for producing ethanol from sweet=20 sorghum as a raw material - i) solid fermentation of stalks = and - ii)=20 liquid fermentation of extracted stalk juice followed by=20 distillation.

i) - Solid fermentation: Advantage: Equipment = needed=20 is simple. Disadvantages: Volumes that need to be treated and area = occupied are very large; Fermentation time needed is longer, 4-5 = days for=20 a fermentation cycle; Ethanol production rate is lower than that = of liquid=20 fermentation and not suitable for large industrial production. = (Dealt with=20 in previous chapter under "Technologies of Ethanol ("Chinese = liquor")=20 Production from Sweet Sorghum Stalks by Solid=20 Fermentation".

ii) - Liquid fermentation of stalk juice = suitable for a large industrial alcohol plant: Advantages: Short=20 fermentation, 6-24 hours per cycle; A large amount of raw material = can be=20 processed in a shorter time and a small area is occupied. = Disadvantage:=20 Higher investment cost.

Liquid = Fermentation:

The main=20 steps of ethanol production from sweet sorghum juice include milling or juice extraction and = fermentation=20 and distillation.

Milling or juice = extraction:

To=20 extract juice from the stem, mechanical squeezing technology has = to be=20 used. Either three-roller squeezer unit juice-extracting system or = grinder=20 juice- extracting instrumentation system may be = employed.

With the=20 three-roller milling system the juice extraction rate can reaches = over=20 97%. The equipment is the product of light industry mechanical = factories.=20 When the technology is designed, the production capacity of = required=20 equipments must be calculated according to the juice yield per = day.=20 Three-roller mills come in different sizes and capacities rated in = tons/hr. Sugarcane mills (large or small) are = suitable for=20 sweet sorghum milling to produce juice.

The grinder=20 juice-extracting instrumentation system may be suited to factories = where=20 daily production capacity is less than 7 tons of raw materials. In = contrast to the three-roller squeezer unit system, grinder=20 juice-extracting instrumentation system utilizes grinder, screw = permeating=20 press and screw drying press, which are the products of light = industry=20 mechanical factories, to replace three-roller squeezer unit. This = system=20 is simple in structure, economical in investment and easy to = operate.=20 However some problems, such as low juice extraction rate (92-94%), = strength of screw drying press, wear and tear of drum and problems = with=20 leaves make this technology less appealing.

Three-roller = Milling=20 Unit Juice-extracting System:

This system is commonly = used in=20 cane sugar factories. The technical process is shown in Fig. 5.3. The juice extraction = technology for a=20 single three-roller squeezer is shown in Fig. 5.4).

With a single = three-roller=20 mill, the juice extraction rate is 50%, and the consumption of = electric=20 energy per ton of stem is 10.8 kilowatt.

Calculation of=20 Requirements for Milling Capacity and Auxiliary = Equipment:

a.=20 Milling Capacity. It is a very seasonal work to making alcohol = from the=20 juice of sweet sorghum. If appropriate varieties are planted in = proper=20 proportions, the cutting could last for about 60 days. In order to = guarantee that the juice is extracted from harvested stems and = fermented=20 in time, the calculation on the milling capacity should be done = before its=20 purchase or production.

If N is the growing area in ha, P = is stem=20 yield/ha in tons, and T the days of juice fermentation, the = capacity of=20 the selected squeezer A, in tons per day, can be calculated by the = equation:



b. Flow (Q1) of the juice = pump is=20 calculated by the equation:



Where e is the maximum juice = extraction rate=20 (about 50-70% for single three-roller squeezer), d is the specific = gravity=20 of juice (to be regarded as 1 ton per cubic meter)

c. The = working=20 capacity of a bent sieve is calculated by the = equation:




d. The volume of juice storage = tank (or=20 pool) is calculated by V1=3D2Q1, where V1 is the volume of juice = storage; Q1=20 is flow of juice pump=20 (m3/hr).

Fermentation:

i) Juice=20 purification. The objective: To purify the juice through the = removal of=20 the impurities dissolved or suspended in the juice, making it = clear and=20 transparent. This operation is carried out in two steps: removal = of the=20 rough solids and clarification, which promotes the coagulation of = the=20 colloids.

ii) Removal of the rough solids: The objective: = to remove=20 the rough solids (bagasse components and small = pieces of=20 stalks). Bagasse quality is important as it has further uses; see = good quality and poor quality bagasse. The process = uses sieves=20 as the main equipment and presents the following characteristics: = Location=20 of the sieves is close to the mills; Removed solids may be sent = back to=20 the mills to extract the remaining juice;

The most common = sieves=20 are: - Fixed sieve - normally consists of a perforated surface = made of=20 bronze or stainless steel; - Rotary sieve - consists of a rotary = cylinder=20 containing an internal perforated surface, which removes the = solids from=20 the juice. It can be cleaned more easily than the fixed sieve and = it is=20 commonly used in the industrial plants.

iii) = Clarification

-=20 Simple Clarification (Production of Crystal Sugar): Impurities are = precipitated as a result of the addition of calcium hydroxide and = heating=20 to 100-105oC. When required, phosphates, betonies,=20 polyelectrolytes and other chemical compounds are added. pH of the = juice:=20 4.8 to 5.8 (before addition of the calcium hydroxide); pH after = addition=20 of the calcium hydroxide: 7.5 to 8.0; pH control (indicator paper, = NaOH=20 titration or Industrial potentiometers); Industrial potentiometers = are=20 more modern and efficient. They are used in the last clarification = tank.

The clarification process can be batch or continuous: = Batch -=20 normally, a battery formed by three tanks is used (one tank - = filling,=20 second tank - operation, third tank - discharge). - Continuous - = normally=20 only one tank is used.

- Sulpha-Clarification: The process = is based=20 in the use of sulphur dioxide (SO2) as acidifying = substance,=20 followed by neutralization with calcium hydroxide. First step - = addition=20 of SO2 in a column (sulphating column) until pH is = 3.8-4.3;=20 Second step: Addition of Ca(OH) 2 (neutralization = tanks) until=20 pH 7.0 to 7.2;

Insoluble CaSO3 is formed and it=20 precipitates, dragging with it the colloidal impurities; = SO2=20 acts as a juice purifier due to: Precipitation of some colloidal=20 substances; Decolorizing action; Preservative action (inhibits the = microorganisms growing);

Negative effect of the = SO2 -=20 hydrolysis of the sucrose, producing glucose and fructose (this = reaction=20 is negative for sugar producing units);

The quantity of=20 SO2 required is 200-700 g/t of stalk:

Auxiliary=20 Products: Phosphoric acid - produces calcium phosphate, that has=20 flocculent characteristics and drags down the impurities; Betonies = -=20 (aluminum or silicate) that absorbs the colloidal impurities;=20 Polyelectrolytes - they increase the efficiency of the = clarification=20 operation (removal of electrically charged particles); Magnesium = oxide -=20 acts as a substitute for the Ca(OH) 2, reducing the=20 encrustations in the equipment; Heating - accelerates the = clarification=20 operation;

Characteristics of the solid waste (cake): = Moisture -=20 65-80 %; Sugar content - 0.5 to 1.5 % (equivalent to 0.1 to 0.4 % = of the=20 sugar content in the = stalks.

Fermentation:

Ethanol is=20 industrially produced by a process that is called alcoholic = fermentation=20 where sugars such as sucrose, glucose, fructose and others are = converted=20 into ethanol by yeasts.

A general scheme of = the=20 ethanol-producing metabolism is presented in Fig. 5.5

Main industrial raw = materials -=20 sugar cane (juice or molasses), unknown type: = [[starch]g]=20 (maize, sorghum,=20 rice=20 and others) and cellulose (wood and cellulose = residues or=20 sweet sorghum juice);

The chemical compositions of the = juice and=20 molasses from sugar cane and sweet sorghum are presented in the Table=20 5.3.

Juice preparation:

The following = factors=20 must be considered during juice preparation: Sugar concentration; = Total=20 acidity and pH; Addition of nutrients and Anti-microbial = agents.

-=20 Sugar concentration: The sugar concentration must be compatible = with: -=20 The raw material (molasses or juice); - The yeast variety; - The=20 fermentation process and - Brix degree 14 28.

- Total = acidity=20 and pH: - Optimum pH - 4.5 to 5.5; - Total acidity 2 to 3 g/l = (expressed=20 in terms of sulphuric acid). This level of acidity facilitates the = yeast=20 growth and inhibits the growing of contaminants.

- = Nutrients: - The=20 main objective is to help the yeast growth and maintenance as well = as the=20 fermentation reactions; - Nitrogen (ammoniacal) is very important = since it=20 helps the yeast growth. Amine nitrogen increases the contents of = the=20 undesired superior alcohols; - Other nutrients - phosphorus, salts = (cobalt, manganese and magnesium), vitamins and antiseptic=20 agents.

- Antiseptic agents: - Are used since broth = sterilization=20 is not economically viable; - They inhibit the growth of bacteria = and=20 other microorganisms with negligible negative impact the yeast = activity; -=20 Main antiseptics and anti-microbial agents are sulphuric acid, = quaternary=20 ammonium salts; phosphurnates, chlorexidina, dithiocarbamates, = phenolics=20 (polihalogenates), penicillin, virginiamicine and others such as = potassium=20 and sodium metabisulphites.

Broth preparation from=20 molasses:

The dissolved solids content are = 88o=20 (approx.) and the steps are dilution, pH adjustment, addition of = nutrients=20 and antiseptics.

- Dilution - water. The water quantity is=20 determined using the Cobenze Cross. Example: A broth with = a Brix=20 degree of 22 is needed by diluting molasses with 88 Brix as raw = material.=20 Which volumes of water and molasses are required assuming a Brix = degree=20 equal to zero for the water?

By this cross, 66 kg of water added to = 22 kg of=20 molasses makes a broth of 22o Brix. To determine the = volumes,=20 we must consider the densities of the raw materials. Molasses (88 = degrees=20 Brix) has a density of 1.468. To calculate volume (V) V=3DMass = (M)/density=20 (D).

- Discontinuous dilution process: Equipment - three = metallic=20 cylindrical tanks (carbon steel), with conic bottom, and = mechanical=20 agitators; Operational sequence: water addition with subsequent = addition=20 of the molasses; One tank - feeding of the fermentation vessel; = One tank -=20 molasses dilution; One tank - filling operation.

- = Continuous=20 process: Disadvantage - is more difficult to control the sugar=20 concentration; Equipment - one metallic and cylindrical tank = (carbon=20 steel), with conic bottom, and mechanical agitator; Operational = sequence:=20 water and molasses are added simultaneously.

- pH = adjustment:=20 Chemical agent - sulphuric acid, which is added to yeast treatment = tanks;

- Addition of nutrients: Phosphorus - normally added = as=20 phosphate (0.5 to 2 ppm); Nitrogen - normally added as ammonium = sulphate=20 or urea (2.5-10 ppm); Nutrients can be added in the treatment = culture tank=20 or directly to the fermented.

Addition of antiseptics: = Sulfuric=20 acid - up to 5 g/l of ethanol; Antibiotics (penicillin, = virginiamicin and=20 others) - 1-5 ppm; Antiseptics (quaternary ammonium, carbonate, = propionate=20 & others)-5-40 ppm.

Broth culture preparation from=20 juice:

Steps - dilution and enrichment; Broth must be = clean;=20 Brix - 18-24 degrees; Dilution - water, added during the milling = to=20 increase the imbibitions rate or in the diluter; Dilution control = -=20 saccharimeter (manual or automatic); Addition of nutrients and=20 anti-microbial agents - procedures are similar to those used to = prepare=20 broth from molasses.

For fermentation the yeast cell = concentration=20 is 108 cells/ml or 10-14% and the yeast growing is from = industrial (baking powder) or selected yeast = strains.

Baking=20 powder: (industrial yeast): Easier to obtain the desired yeast = concentration.

Preparation:
- 20 kg of yeast added to 1 = cubic=20 meter of broth (Brix of about 6o), using the yeast = preparation=20 and treatment culture tank;
- Addition of 1 m3 of = broth=20 (Brix of 6o), when the initial Brix falls to half;
- = Repetition of the procedure until the complete filling of the = tank;
-=20 Diluted broth (Brix of 6o) accelerates the yeast = growing, since=20 yeast respiration is favored;
- Temperature is=20 30-32oC;

Disadvantages of the baking powder = (industrial=20 yeast): Lower resistance to higher ethanol concentrations; Lower=20 resistance to high temperatures.

Selected Yeast:=20 Fermentation attains a higher degree of purity and efficiency. It = is more=20 regular and faster. Preparation is more expensive and complex as = it=20 requires sterilized broth. The yeast growing occurs initially in = the=20 laboratory and is completed in the industrial = plant.

Laboratory=20 growth method:
- Sterilized broth enriched with nutrients = (nitrogen and=20 phosphorus) and pH equal to 4.5; - Aseptic inoculation; - = Controlled=20 temperature (30-32oC);
Growth steps:
1) - = transfer of 100=20 ml of sterilized broth, Brix in the range from 3-5o, to = a=20 500-ml Erlenmeyer. Broth pH is previously adjusted to 4.5 using = sulphuric=20 acid;
2) - inoculation and growing during 24 h;
3) - = transfer of the=20 500-ml Erlenmeyer content to a 2-liter Erlenmeyer containing 500 = ml of=20 sterilized broth at 6-8o Brix;
4) - transfer to a = 6-liter=20 bottle containing 2.5 liters of sterilized broth at = 9-11o=20 Brix;
5) - transfer to a bottle of 35 to 40 liters containing = 12.5=20 liters of non sterilized broth at 9-11o Brix;
6) - = transfer=20 to a 200-liter metallic vessel containing 35 liters of non = sterilized=20 broth at 9-11o Brix;
7) - addition of 35 liters more = as soon=20 as the Brix falls to the half. Division of the total volume (app. = 70=20 liters) in two 200-liter metallic vessels;
8) - repetition of = the=20 seventh step until to reach the volume required for the = transference to=20 the industrial plant (approx. 1,000-2,000 = liters).

Industrial=20 growth:
1) - the yeast prepared in the laboratory (a total = volume of=20 broth plus yeast varying from 1,000 liters to 2,000 liters) is = transferred=20 to the yeast-growing tank. Five to ten cubic meters of fresh broth = is=20 added (Brix 9-11o) to this tank;
2) - double the = original=20 volume of broth as soon as the Brix falls to half. This procedure = is=20 repeated until the complete filling of the tank;
3) - = transference to=20 the fermented and addition of fresh broth. The broth addition must = be slow=20 at the beginning to avoid a sudden increase in the Brix degree of = the=20 fermentation medium. Flow increasing is proportional to the = decrease in=20 the Brix degree. The Brix degree of the added broth must be the=20 approximately double of the Brix degree in the fermentation=20 medium.

Steps in the alcoholic fermentation (batch=20 process):

There are three main steps: Preliminary; = Principal=20 and Complementary;

Preliminary fermentation: It begins when = the=20 broth is mixed with the yeast and has the following = characteristics:=20 Strong yeast growth; Low production of ethanol; Low increase of=20 temperature; Must be a short period, so it requires: Adequate = initial=20 concentration of yeast; Fast growing yeast and A broth adequately = prepared=20 (nutrients and pH).

Principal fermentation: It begins with = the=20 appearance of CO2 and has the following characteristics: Ethanol = and CO2=20 production; Fast increase of the temperature; Production of foam; = Decrease=20 of the broth density and Increase in the = acidity.

Complementary=20 fermentation: It begins when the CO2 production decreases and has = the=20 following characteristics: Completes the fermentation process; = Decrease in=20 production of CO2 and the turbulence of the fermentation medium;=20 Decreasing temperature and Increasing acidity;

Yeast = recovery and=20 distillation must begin soon after completion of the fermentation = to avoid=20 contamination and to avoid.

Fermentation=20 Processes:

The main fermentation processes are: - i) = Process=20 without yeast recovery; - ii) Cutting diluting process; - iii) = Decanting=20 process and - iv) Melle-Boinot.

The main characteristics of = each=20 process are:

i) Process without yeast recovery (batch = process):=20 Yeast is not separated from the brew and is sent to the = distillation=20 equipment; Each fermentation batch requires a new quantity of = yeast (app.=20 20% of the volume of the fermentation tank); Pure yeast strain or = baking=20 powder can be used for each batch; Use of pure yeast strains = requires=20 sterilized environment (special fomenters); Presents higher degree = of=20 purity in the fermentation;

Main disadvantages are: Higher = cost;=20 Lower industrial yield due to the higher sugar consumption to = produce=20 yeast; Longer fermentation and Higher consumption of nutrients and = steam.

ii) Cutting diluting Process (batch process): This = process=20 is used for the start-up of the fermentation unit as a procedure = to fill=20 all the fermentation vessels; Yeast from a previous batch is used = in a new=20 batch; Yeast is not separated from the broth. Approximately 50 % = of the=20 volume of the previous batch is used in the new batch;

The = main=20 steps are:
1) - yeast (baking powder or pure strain prepared in = the=20 laboratory) is transferred to the empty fermentation vessel;
2) = -=20 addition of the fresh broth;
3) - half of the fermentation = volume is=20 transferred to another vessel as soon as the Brix falls to the = half of the=20 initial value;
4) - the volumes of the two vessels are = completed with=20 fresh broth;
Steps 3 and 4 are repeated until all fermentation = vessels=20 are filled.

iii) Decanting process: This process is mainly = used to=20 produce alcoholic beverage (cachucha) in plants without yeast = separation=20 equipment (centrifuges or sedimentation vessels).

The main = steps=20 are:
1) and 2) - as above in ii);
3) - after completion of = the=20 fermentation, when there is no more production of CO2, the yeast = is left=20 to settle in the base of the vessels and the wine is pumped to the = distillation equipment;
4) - fresh broth is added to the = decanted yeast=20 and a new fermentation batch begins.

iv) Melle-Boinot = (batch or=20 continuous process): Use of centrifuges for yeast recovery; Yeast=20 treatment with sulphuric acid at pH 2.5 to 3.0 for approximately 4 = hours=20 after yeast recovery.

The main objectives of the yeast = treatment=20 are: Yeast recovery and activation; Reduction of the population of = contaminants (microorganisms) due to the action of the sulphuric = acid as=20 well as of the yeast separation process (centrifuge or = sedimentation=20 vessel);

The main steps are:
1) and 2) - as above in = ii);
3)=20 - after completion of the fermentation the yeast is separated from = the=20 wine in the centrifuges or sedimentation vessel;
4) - yeast is=20 transferred to the treatment tank where water (volume 1:1) and = sulphuric=20 acid are added to reach the pH value of 2.5-3.0. The treatment = time is=20 four hours, approximately, and higher levels of contamination = require=20 lower pH;
5) - yeast is transferred to the fermentation vat = after=20 completion the yeast treatment and fresh broth is added to start a = new=20 batch;

The main advantages of the process are: High yield; = Faster=20 fermentation; Large industrial utilization (almost all Brazilian=20 industrial plants use this process) and It can be a batch or a = continuous=20 process.

Single Concentration Continuous Fermentation; = Continuous=20 Fermentation of a Fixed-yeast Fluid-bed System and = Distillation. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Single Concentration Continuous=20 Fermentation:

a). Methodology.

Since the sweet = sorghum=20 stem juice flows easily, microorganism continuous fermentation may = be=20 used. Compared with intermittent fermentation, continuous = fermentation is=20 faster, giving a higher utilization ratio of the equipment, more = labour=20 and material resources are saved, and production costs are = lowered. The=20 process is shown in Fig. 5.6.

The key operation = procedures=20 are:

- The gradually cultured distiller's yeast is poured = into tank=20 No.1.
- Juice that has been heated and sterilized (pH 4.5-5) is = lead=20 into the tank in the proportion of 1 to 10 until it is full.
- = When the=20 temperature is 30oC, lead aseptic gas into the tank=20 intermittently to culture the yeast for 18-24 hours.
- After = the yeast=20 has reproduced, open the valves of the cooling tank. Let juice of = sweet=20 sorghum flow into the tank through the upper inlet of tank = No.1.
-=20 Nutrient is provided for the saccharomycete to promote it to = reproduce in=20 a large quantity.
- Juice is continuously added into tank No. 2 = while=20 being filled into tank 1 tank.
- Aseptic gas is added = intermittently=20 into No. 1 and No.2 tanks to accelerate the reproduction of yeast. = The=20 flow indexes are 2-2.5m3/hr for per ton of juice and 10 = minutes=20 of airflow once every one-hour.
- Juice is added into tank No.3 = tank=20 while being filled into No. 1 tank, passes serially through other = tanks,=20 and flows out from tank 10.

This procedure takes about 24 = hours and=20 above 80% of sugar juice can be fermented to alcohol and = CO2.

b.=20 Technological conditions of tank. The experimental technological=20 conditions of some tanks are listed in Table=20 5.4.

c. Fermentation tank structure. (See Fig 5.7).

Continuous = Fermentation of=20 a Fixed-yeast Fluidized-bed System:

This technology is = the most=20 advanced biological technique today. Compared with batch = fermentation and=20 /or single concentration continuous fermentation, this = fermentation=20 technology possesses the advantages of speed, short fermentation = cycle,=20 high yield, few instruments, and potential for automation. The = production=20 capacity is 10 to 20 times higher than that of batch=20 fermentation.

The surface area of the fixed-yeast and juice = carrier=20 is large, which increases the reaction rate and shortens the = fermentation=20 cycle to 4-5 hours. Because fixed-yeast reproduces unceasingly in = the=20 carrier, the life span is prolonged and the discharge of organisms = is=20 reduced, as is environmental pollution. The biological reactor is = a=20 dumbbell-shaped 3-unit vertical vessel that occupies a small area, = so the=20 capital construction cost is greatly = decreased.

Technological=20 process:

The technological process of making alcohol by = means=20 of a fixed-yeast fluidized-bed biological reactor is shown in Fig. 5.8. The system includes a CO2 = circulation=20 unit, juice flowing and filling unit, brew removing unit, cooling = and=20 warming system, measuring instruments, and a particle-producing = system=20 etc.

a). Procedure description:

The fixed-yeast = particles=20 must firstly be produced with a pelletizing machine. And before = operation=20 the fixed-yeast cells must reproduce. The prepared fixed-yeast = particles=20 are filled into the first unit of the reactor. Then diluted juice = (Brix 5)=20 of sweet sorghum is pumped into the reactor until it is full. At = the same=20 time, aseptic air is fed in continuously to allow fixed-yeast = cells to=20 reproduce. This process lasts about 50 hours. When cells have = reproduced=20 from 106-108 cells/ml, and the spore rate = rises from=20 5-10 to 15-30% fermentation begins.

When normal operations = begin,=20 the CO2 circulation system and juice flowing and filling system = start=20 simultaneously. CO2 in the gasbag is blown into the constant = pressure gas=20 storage tank by the No.1 gas compressor. Then, CO2 is led into the = gas=20 chamber at the lower end of the biological reactor. Passing = through the=20 gas-dispersing tank, it eventually enters the reactor making = fixed-yeast=20 particles react inside the third reactor unit. At the same time, = sweet=20 sorghum juice inside the high tank, under the action of pressure, = injects=20 into the reactor from two tangentially mounted spouts in the first = unit of=20 the reactor and circulates around the axis. Simultaneous action by = the=20 upward CO2 forces the juice spirally up. The = solid-liquid-gas=20 three-phase flowing layer (shown in Fig. 5.9) is formed in the reactor = which=20 releases the CO2 gas adhering to the surface of = fixed-yeast=20 particles.

As CO2 gas is in constant contact = with the=20 fermentation liquid, a vigorous reaction state is achieved and the = reaction rate is greatly increased. Since juice enters from the = tangential=20 spouts in the first unit of the reactor, it takes about 5 hours = for juice=20 to pass through all of the 3 units and complete the reaction. More = than=20 90% of sugar is converted into alcohol and CO2. = Eventually the=20 fermentation brew enters the brew storage chamber, and then flows = into a=20 solid-liquid separator through the outlet. After broken remains of = yeast=20 particles have been removed, the fermentation brew is introduced = to the=20 brew storage tank to be distilled.

CO2 coming = out of the=20 third unit is pumped into a storage bag for use in the next cycle, = through=20 the brew storage chamber, foam collector, gas-liquid separator, = and=20 cooling and purifying tank by the compressor.

b). Technical = data of=20 fermentation technology:

During continuous fermentation, = constant=20 reaction must be maintained, sweet sorghum juice needs to be added = evenly,=20 and the temperature and pH inside the reactor should keep stable. = The=20 above-mentioned indices are all monitored by meters. The = parameters for=20 maintaining continuous fermentation are obtained through a number = of tests=20 and are listed in Table=20 5.5 for reference.

c). Structural diagrams of some=20 equipment:

Fig. 5.10 - Unit structure of the = reactor; Fig. 5.11 - Gas chamber structure; Fig. 5.12 - Brew storage chamber; Fig. 5.13 - Structure of foam = collector; Fig. 5.14 - Structure diagram of = gas-liquid=20 separator; Fig. 5.15 - Structure of cooling and = purifying=20 tank and Fig. 5.16 - Solid-liquid=20 separator.

Fermentation problems:

Problems = will occur=20 when care is not taken during the whole process of ethanol = production. The=20 main negative effects in the fermentation are due to the presence = of=20 undesired microorganisms since they carry out the so called = =E2=80=9Csecondary=20 fermentations=E2=80=9D. If these occur, sugar and ethanol are = consumed to produce=20 other substances, reducing the efficiency and yield. The = fermentation=20 environment also becomes unfavorable for yeast activity, further = reducing=20 the efficiency and yield. The main sources of contamination in the = fermentation process are:

- Raw material of poor quality = (old=20 plants, improper storage, long storage after harvesting and=20 contamination). See pictures of good quality and poor quality juice for = fermentation.
- Bad=20 conditions of sanitation during the whole process (milling, juice=20 cleaning, fermentation and yeast treatment). The sanitation must = be=20 continuously monitored through adequate cleaning of the whole = equipment as=20 well as through the use of sterilizing agents such as steam, = antiseptics=20 and antibiotics.
- High temperature of fermentation (higher = than=20 35oC).

The main secondary fermentation processes = are:

a) Acetic fermentation - caused by the bacteria of the = genus=20 Acetobacter, which consume ethanol and = produce=20 acetic acid, under anaerobic conditions. The main characteristics = of the=20 acetic fermentation are:
- Strong increase in the acidity;
- = Appearance of the typical odor of vinegar and also of a fly = belonging to=20 the genus Drosophila;
Favorable acetic = fermentation=20 conditions are:
- Temperature - 15-34oC;
- = Ethanol=20 concentration - up to 12 % (w/w);

b) Lactic fermentation - = caused=20 by microorganisms of the genus Lactobacillus and Streptomyces that produce lactic acid = under=20 anaerobic conditions. The main characteristics of the lactic = fermentation=20 are:
- Strong increase in the acidity;
- Identification = through=20 reductions in the production of CO2 and foam;
Favorable = fermentation=20 conditions are:
- pH - close to 7.0;
Temperature -=20 30-45oC;
Sugar concentration - up to 20 %;

c) = Butyric=20 acid fermentation - caused by microorganisms of the genus Clostridium that produce organic acids = such as=20 butyric, acetic and formic under anaerobic conditions. The main=20 characteristics of the butyric fermentation are:
- Strong = increase in=20 the acidity;
- Identification through the increase in the = acidity and=20 also through the appearance of a musty smell = (rancidness);
Favorable=20 conditions are:
- pH - close to 7.0;
- Temperature -=20 30-35oC;

d) Production of dextrin - caused by = the=20 microorganism Leuconostoc mesenteroides, which = produces the=20 polymer dextrin from the glucose. The main characteristics = are:
- It=20 can appear more easily when long-stored raw materials are used or = the=20 molasses is not properly conserved;
- It can be identified by = the=20 appearance of small gelatinous drops in the surface of the = fermentation=20 medium as well as by the increase in the viscosity;
- Favorable = conditions are:
pH, neutral or alkaline; Temperature,=20 30-35oC;

Undesired fermentation can be = controlled=20 by:
- Adequate sanitary preparation of the fermentation = broth;
- Use=20 of adequate quantity of good quality yeast; Keeping good = conditions of=20 sanitation and hygiene;
- Adequate monitoring of the = fermentation=20 process.

Distillation:

Distillation follows = after=20 juice has been fermented in order to produce alcohol. The = distillation=20 column can be chosen according to conventional technology. Fig. 5.17 shows the process of = alcohol=20 distillation.

Two columns for distillation are adopted in = this=20 technology. The rough distillation column is 74,6 cm high, = comprised of 25=20 planks. The rectifying column is divided into two sections to = lower the=20 height of the distillation workshop. Each of the two sections is = 100 cm=20 and has 40 planks. A round-shaped cover structure for the planks = is=20 suitable for distilling the three kinds of fermentation materials. = Alcohol=20 travels from the rough distillation column (1) to the rectifying = column=20 (3) in the steam phase. The recycling liquid from the rectifying = column 2=20 is pumped back into the rectifying column = 3.

Appendix I: Pelletizing Machine for Yeast Cells = Immobilized=20 Carrier Production and Appendix II: Sugar Analysis. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Appendix I: Pelletizing Machine for = Producing Yeast=20 Cells' Immobilized Carrier.

Compared to traditional = fermentation=20 technology, the technology of the immobile cells carrier has the=20 characteristics of: - Faster working speed, - Higher productivity = and=20 efficiency, - Shorter reaction cycle, - Simpler equipment = requirement and=20 - Continuous and automatic production can be carried out easily. = The=20 production capacity using this technology could be 10-20 times = higher than=20 traditional fermentation technology. It has been one of the most = important=20 improvements and is the developing trend in the ethanol production = industry today.

For rapid and continuous fermentation, the = key=20 restriction is the production capacity of gelatinous particles of=20 immobilized yeast cells. In Japan production = of=20 gelatinous particles of immobilized yeast cells are carried out = using=20 vibration technology. The solution of yeast cells and the carrier = are=20 broken into tiny drops. The yeast cells are embedded in calcium = ketene.=20 The diameter of the spray nozzle for this technology is 1.1 mm, = and its=20 maximum productivity is 24 l/h.

A new patented technology = for yeast=20 cells immobilized in a carrier was developed by Shenyang = Agricultural=20 University cooperating with Shenyang Forestry and Soil Research = Institute.=20 The productivity is 150 1/h, 6.25 times higher than the vibration = spray=20 nozzle method. The equipment consists of a mixer, centrifuge, and = trough=20 for immobilizing cells and a collector of gelatinous particles. = The=20 centrifuge is composed of an electromagnetic governing electric = motor,=20 hopper, transmission, and centrifuge tray as shown in Fig. 5.18.

Basic principle: = The basic=20 principle is to use centrifugal force to break up a mixed solution = of=20 yeast cells with a colloid of ketene as carrier into tiny drops. = The drops=20 then fall into a calcium liquid in the trough, and become then=20 immobilized. The yeast cells are embedded in the carrier of = gelatinous=20 particles. Design of and calculations on the equipment can be seen = at:=20 http://www.fao.org/docrep/T4470E/t4470e06.htm

Appendix = II:=20 Sugar analysis.

It is very important to master the correct = method=20 of analyzing sugar content in the juice that is being subjected to = fermentation in the alcohol plant. There are two methods, i.e. = physical=20 and chemical.

Physical methods:

1. = Refractometry=20 (Refractometer =E2=80=93 Brix degree); Measurement of the = light=20 refractive index.

The index measures the change in the = light=20 velocity in two different environments (liquid and environment), = according=20 to the equation: Refraction Index =3D sen i/sen r.

It is = affected by=20 the following parameters: Temperature; Length of the light wave; = Quantity=20 of dissolved solids in the medium.

Refractive Index (n) of = the=20 water (Air as standard, sodium light source at 20oC) ? = n =3D=20 1.33299.

The values of the refractive index for different=20 concentrations of sucrose in aqueous solutions are: Sucrose = concentration=20 (%w/w)/Refraction index - 0/1.33299; 5/1.34027; 10/1.34783; = 15/1.35567;=20 20/1.36384.

Equipment: Refractometers - the equipment = measures the=20 refractive index and presents the results as Brix degrees. Types = of=20 refractometers: Abb=C3=A9; Bausch and Lomb (Sodium Light); Manual; = Immersion;=20 Automatic etc.

2. Aerometric Brix: The measurement of the = specific=20 gravity of an aqueous solution of sugar.

Equipment: Brix=20 hydrometer. The results are presented in Brix degrees, which = express the=20 percentage, weight by weight, of sucrose dissolved in a pure = aqueous=20 solution.

In industrial operations, the solutions are not = usually=20 pure and, as a consequence, the Brix degree measured is higher = than the=20 real value of the sugar concentration, as the dissolved impurities = also=20 contributes for the Brix Degree and elevate the Brix readings=20 obtained:
Specific gravity/Brix degree - 1.00000/0; 1.01965/5;=20 1.03988/10; 1.06104/15; 1.08287/20; 1.10551/25.

3. = Polarizer:=20 Measurement of the ability of some substances (including sugars) = to rotate=20 the plane of the polarized light (light that vibrates in only one = plane).=20 The deviation of the light plane increase with the increase in=20 concentration of the dissolved sugar.

Dextrorotatory = substances =E2=80=93=20 sucrose, glucose and others rotate right;=20 Levorotatory substances =E2=80=93 laevulose and others rotate=20 left.

Specific rotating power is the capacity of a = substance to=20 rotate the plane of the polarized light. It is expressed in angle = degrees=20 and refers to the pure substance. It varies according to the = wavelength,=20 the temperature, the column size and the light = source.

Equipment:=20 polarimeter or saccharimeter. Main components: light source, = polarizing=20 crystal (modified Nicol's prism), tube (standard size, contains = the sugar=20 solution), temperature compensation system, analyzer (another = Nicol's=20 prism), telescope and scale.

The results are presented in = the=20 scales Ventzke or Bates-Jackson (International Scale, where a = solution of=20 26 g of sucrose per 100 ml of water, at 20oC, gives a = rotation=20 angle (alpha) equal to 99.90o).

Double=20 Polarization

Double Polarization is used to compensate for = the=20 effect of other optically active substances in a solution. As an = example,=20 production of glucose through sucrose hydrolysis (using acid or = inverts)=20 changes the optical characteristics of the solution and is used to = measure=20 the quantity of glucose produced. The hydrolysis methods commonly = used are=20 the Jackson-Gillis Clerget method which uses HCl and the Clerget = method=20 which uses inverts;

4. Liquid chromatography. The separation of = the=20 dissolved substances in a column filled with a molecular sieve. = Usually,=20 columns are filled with amine silica-gel, and an = acetonitrile/water=20 (70/30) solution is used for elution.

Sugars fractions are = measured=20 using the absorption of the ultra-violet light or the changes in = the=20 refraction index. A standard solution of known sugar concentration = is also=20 passed through the column and the two curves are=20 compared.

Chemical methods:

These methods are = based=20 in the capacity of the sugars to reduce copper in alkaline = solution. The=20 main steps of the chemical methods are:
- Preparation of the=20 solutions;
- Copper sedimentation by heating, as copper oxide=20 (Cu+);
- Determination of the quantity of precipitated copper = (by=20 gravimetric or volumetric analysis, at completion of the = reduction);
-=20 Calculation of the quantity of reducing sugars (using tables or=20 formulas).

Gravimetric methods: (rarely used)=20 Steps:

- Preparation of the solutions;
- Copper = sedimentation as=20 copper oxide (Cu+), using heat;
- Filtration of the copper = oxide;
-=20 Determination of the quantity of precipitated copper, by = gravimetric=20 methods of Meissl-Hiller or Munson-Walker

Volumetric=20 methods:

- -Lane-Eynon=C2=B4s Method: Advantages: more = accuracy and=20 speed; Disadvantages: requires standardization of the solutions = and=20 attention to the turning point of titration.

Reagents:
- = Fehlings solution A (copper sulphate);
- Fehlings solution B = (Rochelle=20 salt, sodium and potassium titrate plus sodium hydroxide);
- = Ethylene=20 blue at 1% (indictor);
- Diatomaceous = earth.

Technique:
-=20 Take approximately 200 ml of the sugar solution in a 500-ml = Erlenmeyer=20 flask and add 0.5 grams of potassium oxalate (to remove the = calcium);
-=20 Let mixture settle for 5 minutes;
- Add 5 grams of diatomaceous = earth=20 agitate and filter using filter paper. Discard the initial = fractions,=20 which present turbidity;
- Fill the burette using the clean = sugar=20 solution;
- Add 5 ml of the Fehlings A and Fehlings B solutions = to an=20 Erlenmeyer flask;
- Add 20 ml of distilled water to the=20 Erlenmeyer;
- Add 8 ml of the sugar solution to the = Erlenmeyer;
-=20 Heat the mixture until boiling and keep boiling for 2 = minutes;
- Add 5=20 drops of the ethylene blue solution and complete the titration in = at the=20 most 1 minute, keeping the solution boiling. The titration end = point is=20 indicated by the change in the color of the solution;
- Record = the=20 volume (ml) of sugar solution consumed in the burette and search = in the=20 proper table the correspondent sugar concentration.

- = -Nelson=C2=B4s=20 Method: Advantage: gives higher accuracy than the = Lane-Eynon=C2=B4s Method as=20 it has no turning point to interpret; Disadvantage: it is slower = than the=20 Lane-Eynon=C2=B4s Method.

Reagents:
- Solution A (sodium = carbonate,=20 potassium and ammonium titrate, sodium bicarbonate and sodium=20 sulfate);
- Solution B (copper sulphate);
- Solution C = (ammonium=20 molybdate, sulfuric acid and sodium = arsenate).

Technique:
- Add=20 1 ml of the sugar solution to a Folin-Wu test tube;
- Add 1 ml = of=20 distilled water to another Folin-Wu tube (blanket tube);
- Add = 1 ml of=20 a standard sugar solution to other Folin-Wu tube (standard tube). = The=20 concentration of the standard sugar solution must be in the range = from 100=20 to 140 micrograms per milliliter;
- Add 25 ml of the solution A = to the=20 1 ml of the solution B and mix well;
- Add 1 ml of the above = mixture=20 (solution A plus solution B) to all the Folin-Wu tubes;
- Heat = the=20 Folin-Wu tubes in a heating bath (temperature equal to = 100oC)=20 for 20 minutes. Cool the tubes;
- Add 1 ml of the solution C to = the=20 cooled Folin-Wu tubes;
- Mix well until foam is gone;
- = Complete the=20 volume of the Folin-Wu tubes (25 ml each) using distilled water = and mix=20 well;
- Read the light absorbance in a spectrophotometer = (wavelength=20 equal to 540 nanometers), using the blanket tube to calibrate the=20 spectrophotometer.

Enzymatic methods: Based on = monitoring of=20 the enzymatic oxidation of glucose by the enzyme glucose oxidase = (GO).=20 This reaction can be monitored through the changes in the polarity = of the=20 sugar solution with a polarimeter or through the formation of = hydrogen=20 peroxide. This chemical reacts with the 4-aminophenazone and with = the 2,=20 4-dichlorine phenol, producing a dying agent (anti-peril-chlorine- = quinoimine), according to the following reaction:

Glucose + = O2 + H2O to glycolic acid +=20 H2O2.

The =E2=80=9Cglucose = analyzer=E2=80=9D measures the=20 electric current formed during the hydrogen reduction, according = to the=20 reaction presented below:

H2O2 to 2=20 H+ + O2 + 2 = e-.

Ch. 6. Sugar Production. Return=20 To Table of Contents

History:

Sorghum is a very old crop = and has a=20 long cultivation history. The study on its use for sugar = production began=20 in the 19th century but it was difficult to extract because of low = stem=20 content and there were no special techniques for sugar refining = from=20 sorghum. With the development of new varieties and industrial = technology=20 some difficulties in sugar extraction and refining from were = resolved=20 which is promoting the cultivation of sweet=20 sorghum as a sugar crop.

The United=20 States had advanced the technology on research and utilization = of=20 sweet sorghum. The first variety "Chinese Amber" was introduced to = France,=20 then to America from Shanghai, China, in 1851. It extended throughout = the=20 country and was used for making sugar syrup in 1859. In 1880, the = syrup=20 production reached a peak of 113.50 million liters decreasing to = 91.74=20 million in 1890 (fig. 6.1) and progressively=20 thereafter.

A new variety, which had the superior = characteristics=20 of high sugar content and disease tolerance was bred in 1964, = accelerating=20 the study on techniques of sugar production. In 1969 Smith = invented a=20 simple method to remove the starch and aconite acid from the juice = and=20 produced crystal sugar successfully. In Louisiana, USA, a pilot = plant=20 producing 2000 T of sugar per day from sweet sorghum was set-up in = 1982=20 and the result was satisfactory. Other countries, such as Mexico,=20 Russia, Italy,=20 Australia and Brazil,=20 all attached importance to research and processing of sweet=20 sorghum.

The Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese = Academy=20 of Science (CAS) introduced two varieties of sweet sorghum (Rio = and Rome)=20 from America due to the serious lack of sugar in China in the = 1970's. They=20 have high biomass and sugar content, so they were expanded to = different=20 provinces and the total planting area reached more than 20000 ha. = However,=20 because the problem of how to prolong the processing period was = not=20 resolved and there were no good processing techniques, the planted = area=20 decreased. By the end of seventies and beginning of eighties, some = trials=20 on sugar refining with traditional methods were done but = satisfactory=20 results were not achieved. Then some research on breeding and = processing=20 techniques was set out to improve the stability and benefit of = sugar=20 production. From this work it was concluded that sweet sorghum = would be an=20 important sugar crop in the near future.

Varieties for = sugar=20 production:

Although many varieties can be used for = sugar or=20 syrup products, the sugar content and composition of sugars are = different.=20 Sweet sorghum can be divided into two categories according to the=20 proportion of saccharine and reducing sugars in the juice. One = group is=20 crystal sugar sorghum, including 'Keller', 'Rio', 'Cowley' etc., = whose=20 juice is composed of saccharine and suitable for crystal sugar = production.=20 The other kind is syrup sorghum, including 'Theis', 'Tracy' and = 'M-81E',=20 which are suitable for syrup production. If syrup sorghum is used = for=20 crystal sugar product, it is difficult to crystallize because the = lower=20 content of crystal sugar in the juice. Similarly, crystal sorghum = can't be=20 used for syrup product because it is easy for the syrup to = crystallize.=20 Thus, it is critical to choose a good variety of sweet sorghum for = sugar=20 production. Some varieties suitable for sugar production=20 are:

'Dale' is a mid-season variety developed at the U.S. = Sugar=20 Crops Field Station (SCFS), Meridian, Mississippi. Seeds are = small,=20 reddish brown, and germinate well. Dale is resistant to lodging, = leaf=20 anthracnose and red stalk rot (Colletotrichum graminicola). Stalks = are=20 medium-sized and erect and they make excellent-quality=20 syrup.

'M8IE' is a late-maturing variety, a few days later = than=20 Dale, and produced at the SCFS. It is similar to Dale in height = and=20 lodging resistance. It is resistant to leaf anthracnose and red = stalk rot,=20 but it is susceptible to maize dwarf mosaic virus. The yield of = syrup is=20 generally superior to Dale. The syrup has a mild sorghum flavor, = amber=20 color, and excellent quality. It appears to be more susceptible to = a light=20 frost than other varieties.

'Brandes' was released in 1968 = from the=20 SCFS. It is a late-maturing variety with an excellent root system = and=20 stiff stalks that usually remain erect. It is resistant to leaf=20 anthracnose and red stalk rot. It has good syrup quality, but it = is more=20 susceptible to drought than some varieties. The seed are small and = white=20 and have good germination.

'Theis', also developed at the = SCFS, was=20 released in 1974. It has late maturity similar to Brandes and = Wiley. It=20 may grow to 4-5 m but it has good lodging resistance. It produces = large,=20 brown seed. Syrup quality is usually excellent. It is highly = resistant to=20 leaf anthracnose and red stalk rot, has moderate resistance to downy=20 mildew, and is tolerant to maize dwarf mosaic = virus.

'Sugar=20 Drip' is an early mid-season variety of unknown origin. It tends = to lodge=20 and is very susceptible to many diseases. Seed are medium-sized = and brown.=20 It is one of the earliest maturing varieties for the South USA and = China,=20 and so it is useful for early syrup production. It must be = harvested=20 earlier than other varieties because it is susceptible to=20 diseases.

'Georgia Blue Ribbon', a variety of uncertain = origin,=20 lodges badly and is susceptible to major sweet sorghum diseases. = Stalks=20 are shorter and juicier than those of Tracy. Syrup quality is = excellent.=20 The seed are medium-sized and brown. It matures about the same = time as=20 Tracy.

'Honey' was grown by the USDA before 1900; it is = also called=20 Honey Drip and Texas Seeded Ribbon. The stalks grow 2-3 m and tend = to=20 lodge badly. It yields well and makes excellent-quality syrup, but = it is=20 susceptible to most major sorghum diseases. It is a few days later = than=20 Tracy in maturity.

'Tracy' is a mid-season variety = developed by the=20 USDA and released in 1953. It grows 3-4 m tall under optimum = conditions,=20 and it has intermediate tillering ability. The stalks are erect = and juicy.=20 The syrup quality can be excellent, but under some conditions the = juice=20 may contain too much starch for proper boiling. Tracy is = susceptible to=20 anthracnose, red rot, leaf spot, and rust.=20 Stalk yield is high but the syrup yield per ton of stalks is=20 low.

Syrup=20 processing:

Harvest:

Harvesting at = optimum=20 maturity is the first step in obtaining high quality sorghum syrup = because=20 changes in the composition of the juice and soundness of the = stalks=20 influence the quantity and quality. The sugar content of most = varieties=20 usually continues to increase as maturity approaches, thus, the = best=20 harvest time will be just before plants are mature. It is better = to decide=20 on harvesting by sampling the stalk sugar content.

There = are two=20 methods to cut off the seed head: cut early when standing in the = field or=20 remove after stalk harvest. Although early removal helps to = increase the=20 sugar level and reduce the chances of lodging before harvest, it = needs a=20 lot of labour. When limited, it is best to remove the seed head = after=20 stalk harvest. In future, it may be possible to improve the sugar = content=20 by mechanical, chemical and male-infertile methods.

Since = many new=20 branches will form on the top of the plant and will produce seed = after the=20 first head has been removed, the proper stage to behead is = critical for=20 the sugar content. Some research indicates that the best time is = at the=20 milk stage of the seed development. Sugar level will decrease when = beheaded after the milk stage and be lower at harvest in those = plants not=20 beheaded earlier. The head should be cut between the 2 top=20 nodes.

The best stage for harvesting most varieties is when = most=20 seeds reach the soft- to hard-dough stage of maturity. So it is = easy to=20 determine how mature the plant is by looking at the seed head. The = maturity of sweet sorghum usually differs from one year to another = depending on the variety and on climatic conditions. When = difficult to=20 determine the right time for harvesting from seed maturity, it can = be=20 determined by measuring the amount of sugar in the juice with a Brix hydrometer or a sugar = refractometer. If=20 harvested too mature, the juice starch content increases and the = gelling=20 and crystallization of the syrup are more likely to occur, and for = most=20 varieties will produce a poorer quality of syrup.

Sugar = content=20 (Brix) of stalks with and without head removal: Upper stem; = middle; lower;=20 average. Cut - 18.5; 17.5; 16.9; 17.6. Not cut - 16.8; 15.5; 15.4; = 15.9.

The stalks may be harvested by hand or cut with a = mower or=20 binder and picked up, or mechanically cut and squeezed in the = field. The=20 seed head and peduncle must be removed before = squeezing=20 the juice as they contain less sugar than the rest of the stalk. = Seed=20 heads may be stored in a cool, dry location if to be used as seed = for the=20 next crop.

Excellent syrup can be made without stripping = off the=20 leaves, which is labour intensive. When not removed, it is better = to crush=20 the stalks after the leaves are dry. Leaf stripping should be done = with a=20 narrow paddle, a cane stripper, or the knife used to cut the = stalks while=20 standing.

To prevent the syrup crystallizing and make = cooking=20 easier and faster, a 3-5 day delay for milling will contribute = some water=20 loss and natural conversion of sucrose. Regardless of maturity, = stalks=20 must be harvested before freezing temperatures which ruin the = juice for=20 syrup making.

Juice extraction:

Due to the = similar=20 characteristics between sugarcane and sweet sorghum, extraction = is by=20 squeezing through roller mills.

The percentage of juice = extracted=20 is an important factor in mill operation. The extraction rate = depends upon=20 the mill adjustment, the moisture content of the stalk and the = feed rate.=20 In general, stalks of most varieties contain more than 70% water = and=20 10-15% fiber. With a three-roller mill, the average weight of = extracted=20 juice should be 50-60% of the stalk weight. If the extraction = ratio is 50%=20 or lower mill the stalks a second time.

For maximum = extraction, the=20 rollers must be adjusted to a suitably small spacing. If the bagasse contains visible juice and = is not=20 broken at the joints as it comes from the mill, the extraction = ratio is=20 low. If the spacing is too narrow the extraction will be = inefficient, if=20 too wide the extraction will be low. Under normal conditions, an = efficient=20 mill should be able to apply from 50-100 tons pressure on the = stalks=20 giving 50-55 kg of juice from 100 kg of clean = stalks.

Filtering=20 and settling the juice:

After extraction there will be = some=20 dirt, cane, and debris in the green juice, these affect = evaporation and=20 sugar quality. It is important to filter out these extraneous = materials=20 with a juice-settling tank and mesh screen.

The juice = should be=20 transported from the mill to the juice-settling tanks through a = pipe or=20 hose. It is then filtered through a fine mesh screen, muslin, or = fine=20 nylon cloth to filter debris as it enters the tank. To ensure the=20 continuous extraction of stalks, it is better to use 3-4 settling = tanks,=20 each big enough to hold the juice from 2-3 hours of = milling.

There=20 are two different tanks - heated and unheated. The outlet on the = settling=20 tank should be at least 25 mm above the bottom so the settled = material is=20 not drawn into the distiller, and a separate opening in the bottom = of the=20 tank will be needed to clean out the tank after draining. Since = heat=20 applied directly to the bottom of the tank causes problems in = settling,=20 the steam-heated coils should be placed around the side of the = preheat=20 tank instead of underneath.

The juice should be settled for = a=20 minimum of 2 hours before evaporation, and not more than 3-4 hours = because=20 it is quick to ferment and spoil without refrigeration or without = heating.=20 In the heated tanks, the juice is heated to a point just below = boiling and=20 held for about 2 hours. If the juice is held overnight, the = temperature=20 should not be allowed to go below 70oC; this allows the skimmings = to rise=20 to the top and the settlings to precipitate.

Removal of = skimmings=20 and insolubles from the juice in the settling tank is a vital and=20 indispensable step to make high-quality, light-colored syrup. If = skimmings=20 are boiled into syrup they are almost impossible to remove later = in the=20 process.

Juice evaporation and = concentration:

The=20 quality of the syrup will be influenced by the equipment and = process used=20 in manufacturing and by the skill of the syrup maker. There are = two=20 different methods for evaporating the juice; batch (kettles) or=20 continuous-flow. Juice evaporators are made of galvanized iron, = black=20 iron, stainless steel, or copper. Evaporators made from galvanized = iron=20 are discouraged because the acidic juice leaches the zinc out of = the=20 galvanized metal. Although there are no known health hazards, the = use of=20 iron is discouraged because high iron levels leaching into the = syrup make=20 it darker. Those made of stainless steel or copper are used today. = However, stainless steel evaporators need a uniform heat source = for even=20 heat distribution and the ideal heat source is = steam.

Continuous=20 evaporators produce a quick concentration of the juice to syrup, = and will=20 facilitate efficient skimming with proper operation. = Continuous-type=20 evaporators have many advantages namely:

- The design = allows for=20 rapid evaporation, which is essential in making light-coloured = syrup; it=20 increases the rate of boiling and foaming and affords a better = opportunity=20 for thorough skimming; heat is applied to the bottom of the = evaporator,=20 giving an upward motion to the coagulated material, which makes = skimming=20 easier.

- Certain proteins and other non sugar substances = will=20 begin to coagulate and rise to the surface of the juice when heat = is=20 applied. The best practice is to remove this material as quickly = as=20 possible because success in making syrup depends first on the = thoroughness=20 with which the juice is skimmed before it begins to boil rapidly. = Even if=20 careful skimming is done at the beginning of evaporation, = continuous=20 evaporators make it advisable to continue the skimming until the = juice has=20 been evaporated to the density of finished syrup.

- In = practice,=20 the difficulty of concentrating the syrup to uniform density is = how to=20 judge fairly accurately the density of syrup while it is still = boiling.=20 Many operators are able to judge by their experience, others by = dipping a=20 skimmer into the boiling syrup, holding it up, and noting how the = cooling=20 syrup "flakes off." However, it is inevitable to be inconsistent = with the=20 subjective method in continuous evaporators. The use of a = syrup-maker's=20 thermometer can easily eliminate the uncertainties of guessing the = density.

Syrup finishing:

When syrup of heavy = density=20 is desired, the finished temperature is always about = 9oC higher=20 than the boiling point of water. The syrup density has a = relationship with=20 the finished boiling temperature, which permits the determination = of the=20 density by simply observing the temperature during = boiling.

The=20 temperature must be controlled along the pan's length in order to=20 evaporate the juice uniformly. Before the skimming is completely = removed,=20 boiling of the juice should start at about one quarter of the = length of=20 the pan from the juice end and remain at a constant temperature. = During=20 the process of evaporation no part of the pan should be dry for = more than=20 an instant. Otherwise, the syrup's quality may be impaired, and = the pan=20 can be damaged. Cooling the finished syrup is critical for = obtaining light=20 colored syrup after evaporation. The syrup must be cooked to about = 60-70oC as quickly as possible because the faster the = syrup=20 cools, the less the colour will develop. In some cases, the = temperature of=20 syrup is decreased by passing it quickly through a pipeline that = is in an=20 enclosed cool-water tank, to maintain the syrup's lighter color. = If an=20 enzyme is used to prevent crystallization, the temperature cannot = be above=20 65oC in order to keep it activated.

The finished = syrup=20 is thoroughly sterilized by boiling. If canned above = 65oC in=20 clean containers, it will not spoil or ferment. At the same time, = the=20 container must be airtight to prevent fermentation or surface = mould=20 growth.

Sometimes, semi syrup (light syrup) is an = attractive=20 alternative since juice cannot be held for long periods without = spoiling.=20 The sugar concentration, the temperature at which it is held and = the=20 sanitation of the system decide the time that it can be safely = held. The=20 more density the syrup, the longer it can be = stored.

Questions=20 and discussion:

Gelling:

Starch in the = juice=20 seriously affects the consistency of making high quality syrup = from sweet=20 sorghum juice which is different from sugarcane juice. The starch = in the=20 raw juice of sweet sorghum may cause gelling when levels are high. = The=20 starch content depends on the growing season and the variety = grown.=20 Over-mature sorghum usually has high amounts of starch in the=20 juice.

Harvesting at the proper stage reduces starch and = settling=20 the juice for over 2 hours is an effective method to the excessive = starch.=20 Enzymes are almost always used to remove the starch and prevent = gelling,=20 and there are 3 methods:

a). Heat the juice, cool it, and = then add=20 the enzyme. The raw juice is heated to about 95oC for a = few=20 minutes, and then cooled to 80oC or less, and about 30 = ml of=20 the amylase enzyme is added /450 l of juice. Finally, the enzyme = is=20 thoroughly mixed with the juice and allowed to settle for an hour = or more=20 for the enzyme to convert the starch to sugar.

b). Add 30 = ml of a=20 high-temperature amylase enzyme per 450 L of the raw juice = directly, then=20 heat the juice slowly during evaporation. The juice must be heated = slowly=20 enough to allow the enzymes to convert the starch to sugar before = the=20 enzyme becomes inactive.

c). The best method is to remove = the=20 starch gradually. Juice is evaporated to a semi syrup and cooled = to=20 80oC in a large container, then the high-temperature = enzyme is=20 added and juice is allowed to stand for 1 hour or more to convert = the=20 starch to sugar.

Sanitation:

Sorghum syrup = should be=20 processed under good sanitary conditions suitable for food = production. The=20 building should be covered and screened to keep out flies, birds, = and=20 animals. The floor should be concrete and graded to assist = drainage. A=20 pressurized water source for cleaning and hand washing should be=20 available.

Workers must wear clean clothing and hair cover = and use=20 good manufacturing practices during all operations. All surfaces = coming=20 into contact with the juice or finished syrup should be washed = frequently=20 after production. They should be cleaned with 15% sodium = hypochlorite=20 solution and allowed to air dry. In order to prevent spoilage fill = jars=20 with hot syrup and seal them immediately. For all operations = during sugar=20 production, food grade products must be used, including the grease = used on=20 the mill.

How to prolong production:

This is = a vital=20 problem in sugar production from sweet sorghum. Compared to = sugarcane,=20 sweet sorghum is difficult to store, which is an unfavourable = attribute in=20 the scale of its sugar production. As a result, to plant a large = area of=20 sweet sorghum for sugar production, good planning is required to = prolong=20 the processing period.

Planting different varieties of = sweet=20 sorghum or at different times:

Different varieties can be = harvested=20 at different times due to their different maturity periods. The = difference=20 between the growing period ranges from 10-40 days, so the harvest = period=20 can be spread over one month by choosing varieties that mature at=20 different dates.

Sometimes there are only one or two = varieties=20 suitable for planting in certain area, so it is essential to plant = at=20 different times in order to prolong the harvest time. To harvest = ahead of=20 time, seed may be sown in a greenhouse then transplanted, or sown = in the=20 field covered with plastic. If the climate is not the limiting = factor for=20 maturity of and land is not limiting, seed is sown at different=20 times.

Storage methods:

Storage methods will decide = the time=20 of use of the stalks. In order to prolong the machining periods, = suitable=20 methods may be taken to store both the stalks and the raw juice. = It is=20 effective to behead first and keep stalks standing in the field = for about=20 10 days. After that, harvest the stalks, strip off the leaves, and = stack=20 them up. When the stalks are stacked, close attention must be paid = to the=20 stack size and stack aeration.

Storing stalks in the field = is often=20 not enough to prolong processing. Thus, at the same time, it will = be=20 essential to store the raw juice too. After the juices extracted, = it is=20 evaporated to a high brix degree so the juice can be stored for a = long=20 time without spoilage.

Differences between sweet sorghum = and=20 sugarcane juices:

There are many differences. Compared = to=20 sugarcane, some characteristics of sweet sorghum juice affect the = process=20 of sugar production and the quality of sugar. Some differences are = discussed below:

Low sugar purity:

The purity of = sugar is=20 the sucrose ratio to total sugar. In sweet sorghum juice there is = sucrose,=20 glucose, starch and other materials, and the sucrose content is = about=20 50-80%, which is lower than sugarcane. In addition, the purity of = sugar=20 depends on the variety of sweet sorghum, the planting condition, = the=20 harvest period and storage time.

Generally speaking, white = sugar is=20 difficult to produce when the purity of sugar is below 60% = sucrose. More=20 clarifier must be used to improve the purity of sugar in the=20 juice.

High level of deoxidized sugar:

Deoxidized = sugar has=20 no adverse effect on the extraction of sucrose. On the contrary, = it lowers=20 the solubility of sucrose in the water, and contributes to its=20 crystallization. However, deoxidized sugar will change and produce = organic=20 acid, which will decrease the purity of sugar and increase the = sugar in=20 molasses. In addition, some other substances will deepen the color = of=20 juice and improve the stickiness of juice, which increases the = difficulty=20 of crystallization.

There is high content of deoxidized = sugar in=20 sweet sorghum juice. This is an important problem in sugar = production.=20 Deoxidized sugar cannot be removed like sucrose.

Aconitinic = acid:

Aconitinic acid is the most important organic acid in = the=20 juice of sweet sorghum, and its calcium and magnesium salts = produce=20 deposits on the surface of the evaporator because of their low = solubility=20 in the dense sugar syrup. In the process of juice clarification, = one part=20 of aconitinic acid can be removed, while others remain in the = juice.=20 CaCl2 and MgCl2 are used to remove the = aconitinic=20 acid. If white sugar of high quality cannot be produced from sweet = sorghum, the process of clarification should be strengthened to = remove as=20 much aconitinic acid as possible.

Starch:

A high = content of=20 starch in the juice has an unfavorable effect on the sugar = refining of=20 sweet sorghum. The starch will change when it is heated to about=20 67oC, and increase the juice viscosity, which affects = the=20 clarifying process, the quality of sugar product and increases the = cost of=20 production. According to foreign studies, an enzyme should be used = to=20 accelerate the amylolysis process, or the process of conversion of = starch=20 to sucrose will take a long time.

Concluding=20 remarks:

White sugar production from sweet sorghum is = not as=20 easy as from sugarcane. However, sugar syrup (molasses) is a = popular=20 product made from sweet sorghum, especially in USA.

It is = important=20 to remember that the correct varieties of sweet sorghum must be = chosen for=20 sugar production.

Ch. 7. Ensilage. (1). Return=20 To Table of Contents

Ensilage practice and its=20 development:

Ensilage is the process of preserving = green food=20 for domestic animals in an undried condition in a silo, i.e. a = pit, an=20 above ground construction, or stack, from which air has been = mainly=20 excluded. The nutritious characteristic of green juicy fodder is = retained=20 as far as possible. It is a simple economic method of extending = fodder=20 sources and also an effective practice that guarantees all year = supplies.=20 The fodder, which is the result of the process, is called=20 silage.

Although the practices similar to ensilage have = been done=20 since ancient times, special attention was first given by a French = agriculturist, Auguste Goffart, who in 1877 published a work = (Manuel de la=20 Culture et de Premiere ensilage de Ma=C3=ADs et Autres Forages = Verts) detailing=20 the experiences of many years in preserving green crops in silos. = After=20 various experiments had been previously made in the United=20 States in the way of preserving green crops in pits, Goffart's = experience attracted considerable attention. The conditions of = American=20 dairy farming proved eminently suitable for the ensiling of green = maize=20 fodder and the success of the method was soon indisputably = demonstrated=20 among the New England farmers. The favourable results obtained in = America=20 led to much discussion and to the introduction of the system into = the United=20 Kingdom, where, with different conditions, success has been = qualified.=20 Now ensilage has become one of the important practices in = developing=20 domestic animal husbandry globally.

Ensilage has been = practiced in=20 China=20 since early in the Yuan dynasty. In the 20th century it progressed = very=20 quickly, and its technologies greatly improved. Methods of = ensilage became=20 diversified and more scientific, such as ensilage additives, = half-dried=20 ensilage etc. More plant sources were used. Equipment is = developing toward=20 large-scale, sealed, towers with volumes up to 400-600 = m3.=20 Planted areas of silage crops and quantities of ensilaged fodder = are=20 expanding rapidly.

After the introduction of sweet sorghum = varieties in early 1970s, Tianjin and Beijing State Farm = Administrations=20 succeeded in ensiling it. Since then sweet sorghum silage has been = popular=20 with large animal farms in the two cities as it has high yield and = nutritious value, resistance to disease, pests, drought, = water-logging and=20 saline-alkali soils. Planting and ensilage techniques have been = extended=20 too many cities and provinces in China under the support of the=20 government. The FAO/TCP/CPR 0066 project has been promoting the=20 development of sweet sorghum as forage for especially targeted = arid area=20 in northwest China=E2=80=99s Shaanxi province and saline/alkaline = areas in north=20 China=E2=80=99s Shandong province.

Significance of = developing=20 ensilage:

Silage can retain most of the nutritious = components=20 of the original green juicy crop. Preserving raw green forage has = a=20 significant advantage over making hay in the feeding of domestic = animals.=20 Silage has become the main feed source of domestic animals, especially cattle, and is an = important source=20 of vitamins, minerals, and proteins for domestic animals in spring = and=20 winter.

It is the main feedstuff for developing = grain-saving=20 domestic animal husbandry practices. Ensiling green forage can = save grain=20 because silage can substitute for grain feeding and is comparable = with=20 fresh green forage and hay for increasing significantly = reproductive rate=20 and milk of domestic animals as well as promoting the growth and=20 development of young animals. Now silage has become an = indispensable basic=20 feed in the milk and beef industries of China.

Under sealed = conditions, silage can be stored for as long as over 10 years = while=20 retaining its quality. In north China=E2=80=99s very long and cold = winters green=20 forage is not available. Ensilaged green forage is the ideal means = of=20 supplying juicy feed. In Beijing some large animal farms have been = practicing using silage all the year round.

During the = ensiling=20 process, lactic acid, acetate, succinic acid, and alcohol are = produced=20 through fermentation making the silage smell mellow and attractive = to=20 animals.

Ensiling green forage is only affected to a small = extent=20 by weather. In the overcast and rainy seasons, it is difficult to = make hay=20 from green plants. But the time taken from harvesting to storage = of silage=20 is much shorter than in making hay, so the influence of the = weather is=20 much reduced.

A larger area is needed for making hay than = ensiling=20 forage. Generally, a one cubic meter silo can hold 450-700kg of = silage.=20 Furthermore, during storage the silage is little affected by the = weather,=20 and there is no danger of fire as with hay. Some pest eggs, = pathogenic=20 bacteria, and weed seeds are destroyed by the ensilage=20 process.

Principle of ensiling:

The principle = of=20 ensiling is that the green fodder is cut off from the air and = fermented=20 under anaerobic conditions through multiplication of anaerobic Lactobacillus species, which consume=20 water-soluble carbohydrates in the green forage as the main energy = source.=20 During this fermentation lactic acid is produced which makes the=20 concentration of hydrogen ions go up to around 100 ?mol/liter (pH = 4.0). At=20 this high concentration of hydrogen ion the activities of = clostridium and=20 mould bacteria are inhibited. Over time, all microbial growth is=20 inhibited. In this way, green fodder retains its most of the = nutritious=20 components and can be stored for a long time.

There are two = main=20 phases; aerobic and anaerobic which last 2-3 weeks. =

Aerobic=20 phase;

The first phase occurs in the presence of = oxygen, which=20 is present in the forage when placed in the silo. The oxygen is = consumed=20 by the living cells of the green plant material through the = process of=20 respiration. Under aerobic conditions, plant enzymes and aerobic=20 microorganisms consume oxygen and push up the plant water-soluble=20 carbohydrates (sugars), producing carbon dioxide, water, and=20 heat.

The time varies depending with ensiling conditions. = It could=20 last for a few hours or several days. It is good silage making = practice to=20 limit this phase as much as possible since water-soluble = carbohydrates are=20 being consumed and other nutrients are being destroyed. The heat = generated=20 by an extended aerobic phase can raise the temperature of the = ensiling=20 forage material sufficiently to cause damage. Good silage making = practices=20 reduce the amount of time that aerobic microorganisms and = oxidizing plant=20 enzymes are able to function. This is accomplished by chopping the = silage=20 into shorter lengths, packing it thoroughly and sealing the silo = to=20 exclude air.

Anaerobic phase:

This begins = when the=20 available oxygen is used up through plant respiration and aerobic = bacteria=20 cease to function. Anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that grow in the = absence=20 of oxygen) then begin to multiply rapidly using water-soluble=20 carbohydrates in the fodder as energy source and the fermentation = process=20 begins. A small amount protein is broken down to ammonia or amino = acids.=20 Ideally the microorganisms, which grow most rapidly, will be = predominately=20 lactobacilli species, which produce lactic acid from the fermented = plant=20 material. The lactic acid produced will lower the pH of the = silage.=20 Fermentation completely ceases after 3-4 weeks when the pH becomes = so low=20 that all microbial growth is inhibited. Then the concentration of = lactic=20 acid is about 4-10 % of the dry weight of the ensiled fodder. In = stable=20 conditions, when the concentration of hydrogen ion is higher than = 63.09=20 ?mol/liter (pH lower than 4.2), the silage is then able to be = stored for=20 years if the silo is kept unopened.

Factors affecting = silage=20 quality:

Chemical components of the green forage used = in=20 ensiling, especially water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC); Buffering = capacity=20 of the forage; Moisture content of the forage; The extent that the = air in=20 the silo is excluded; The type of bacteria that predominate in the = ensiling fodder and Speed of = fermentation.

WSC: If=20 the green forage to be ensiled is rich in sugars or starch, there = will be=20 a large amount of lactic acid in the resultant silage, which is = the=20 outcome of quick fermentation by Lactobacillus species and these = inhibit=20 fermentation by other undesired bacteria in a short time. The WSC = is=20 affected by many factors, some of which are:

Growing=20 conditions: Plants contain much greater amounts of = water-soluble=20 carbohydrate (WSC) when growing conditions have been cool with = plenty of=20 sunshine. Heavy rainfall during growth can reduce WSC content=20 significantly.

Drought: Drought will reduce the WSC = content=20 of the forage.

Growth stage: The WSC content of = sweet=20 sorghum stalk increases as the plants mature, and reaches a peak = when the=20 grain is in the milk stage.

Management conditions: = There is=20 a decrease of WSC during wilting. If wilting takes longer than = normal,=20 this reduction in sugars can have a very detrimental effect on the = ensiling process.

Daily variation: Total WSC content = appears=20 to increase in the morning, and starts to decrease in the = afternoon.=20

Fertilization: High rates of nitrogen fertilizer = can=20 influence the nitrate concentrations in forage. High nitrate = levels, which=20 are undesirable in the ensiling process, are generally associated = with=20 lower levels of WSC. Some of the nitrates in forage are ultimately = degraded to ammonia, which tends to undesirably raise the pH of = the=20 silage.

Buffering capacity of forage: This has an = influence=20 on the ease with which the forage can be ensiled. It can be = defined as the=20 degree to which forage material resists changes in pH. Forage with = a high=20 buffering capacity will be highly resistant to a reduction in pH, = which is=20 necessary for good preservation. Therefore, more acid must be = produced to=20 reduce the pH to desired levels. This is undesirable in silage = because=20 more WSC must be used to produce the additional acid. Where the = buffering=20 capacity is high, it has been estimated that twice the amount of = WSC is=20 required to give good fermentation, compared with forages with a = low=20 buffering capacity.

The organic acids (malic, succinic, = malonic and=20 glyceric acid) in forages are mainly responsible for buffering = capacity.=20 In the ensiling process these organic acids are degraded by = bacteria and=20 are replaced by acids with stronger buffering properties. These=20 replacement acids cause the buffering capacity of the forage to = increase=20 two to fourfold. Plant proteins also increase the buffering=20 capacity.

Sweet sorghum is rich in sugar in the stalks, so = its=20 buffering capacity may be high. But the exact capacity is yet to = be=20 studied in detail for the range of varieties of growing and the = ensiling=20 conditions prevailing in China.

Moisture content: = The lower=20 the moisture content in the crop, the higher will be the pH at = which=20 anaerobic stability is reached. Organic acids are lost in the = wilting=20 process and this reduces the buffering capacity of the plants, = which=20 improves the ensiling process. This factor is one of the reasons = why field=20 wilting is beneficial with crops that have low WSC contents and = high=20 buffering capacities.

Another aspect, which makes wilting=20 beneficial for ensiling, is that lactic acid bacteria are more = tolerant to=20 lower moisture concentrations than are the undesirable clostridia=20 organisms. Very wet forage (over 70% water) is undesirable since = Clostridium growth may not be inhibited = even when=20 the pH drops to 4. Also with wet forages, the nutritional value = and=20 voluntary intakes of the silage produced are often low. Wilting is = usually=20 restricted to perennial grasses and legume crops. Cereals usually = have=20 moisture levels suitable for rapid ensiling.

The extent = to which=20 the air in the silo is excluded:

The extent to which = the air=20 is excluded from the silo will determine the silage quality. There = are=20 several reasons for this:

- Plant respiration results in = the loss=20 of nutrients, which would otherwise be available for the anaerobic = bacteria to use for lactic acid production.
- Temperature in = the=20 ensiling forage will increase when oxygen is present. This is = generally=20 undesirable since high temperatures lead to heat damage of the = silage.=20
- Air in the silo delays the breakdown of the plant cells and = the=20 release of plant juices. This in turn delays the onset of rapid=20 fermentation since the nutrients in the juices are not immediately = available to the microorganisms.
- Exposure to excessive = oxygen during=20 silo filling encourages growth of fungi, which causes greater = instability=20 and susceptibility to aerobic deterioration when silage is being = fed.=20

All of these factors tend to delay the development of the = lactic=20 acid producing bacteria, encourage the proliferation of = undesirable=20 Clostridium bacteria, and promotes protein = breakdown.

Types of=20 bacteria which predominate:

The most desirable = fermentation=20 will occur where lactic acid producing bacteria predominate. = Although it=20 is frequently assumed that fresh forage is adequately supplied, = the=20 numbers may be low under some circumstances. Many of the silage = inoculants=20 on the market are formulated to increase the numbers of these = bacteria.=20 But in China, silage inoculants are not available.

If more = air is=20 left in the silo, or sugars are deficient, lactic acid = fermentation cannot=20 proceed well, and may even be interrupted, so that detrimental = bacteria=20 may multiply leading to butyric acid formation. Also, protein will = be=20 broken down to non-protein nitrogen with a lower nutritional=20 value.

Lactic acid is the main product of the ensiling = process and=20 the pH varies with the lactic acid content. So the pH becomes a = key=20 indicator involved in the quality of silage and storage time. = Generally=20 raw plant materials in which sugar content is up to 6% could be = ensilaged=20 to make high quality silage. If the sugar content is lower than 2% = it will=20 be difficult to get good silage. The higher the sugar content, the = more=20 quickly the anaerobic bacteria grow and produce lactic=20 acid.

Speed of fermentation:

Since the = primary aim of=20 storing forages as silage is to preserve the material with a = minimum of=20 nutrient loss, it is desirable to limit the nutrient consuming = activity of=20 aerobic micro-organisms and to inhibit the breakdown of protein by = Clostridium micro-organisms under anaerobic=20 conditions.

Characteristics of good ensiling=20 procedures:

Exclusion of air:

It is = extremely=20 important that air is excluded to optimize fermentation. All of = these=20 factors tend to delay the development of the lactic acid producing = bacteria, encourage the proliferation of undesirable Clostridium = bacteria,=20 and promote protein breakdown.

The actual amount of = atmospheric=20 oxygen that is initially trapped in the forage is very small. = Measurements=20 have shown that if sealing is adequate, 99.5% of the oxygen can be = used up=20 in 30 minutes by respiring plant tissues. This amount of = combustion causes=20 very little temperature rise (less than 3oC). However,=20 considerable air can enter the forage if the silage is not covered = with=20 plastic or sealed in some other manner. Slow silo filling, forage = that is=20 not chopped finely enough, and inadequate packing are other causes = of=20 excessive air in silage.

Low = temperature:

When=20 microbial growth occurs in silage, there is a temperature rise. = The=20 greater the growth rates of microorganisms, the higher the = temperature.=20 The rate of acidification is greater when silage temperatures are = higher=20 and the onset of fermentation is earlier. As a result, people have = incorrectly concluded that hot silage is good silage. Higher = temperatures=20 promote the growth of undesirable Clostridia, which result in = increased=20 butyric acid and ammonia formation, which is detrimental to = quality.=20 Temperatures ranging from 15-25oC have been shown to = allow=20 growth of the more important lactic acid producing bacteria while=20 inhibiting the undesirable Clostridia species. Silage temperatures = should=20 not exceed 30oC.

High temperatures will cause = heat=20 damage in silage. When the temperature of the silage exceeds=20 40oC in the presence of oxygen, a chemical reaction = between=20 plant WSC and protein occurs. This reaction produces brown = products that=20 give heat-damaged silage with a tobacco or caramelized odour. The = protein=20 that is bound in this 'browning reaction' is largely indigestible = to the=20 rumen microorganisms of the animal. The higher the temperature in = the=20 silage the greater the reduction in protein digestibility. Fresh = forage=20 protein has a true digestibility of approximately 90%, regardless = of the=20 forage source. Excessive heating can reduce this digestibility to = 30% or=20 less. It should be noted that the longer the time that the high=20 temperature persists, the greater would be the damage to the=20 forage.

Rapid acidification:

Since it is the = pH of=20 the silage that stops the fermentation pH is of great importance. = It is=20 the rate of acidification rather than the ultimate pH achieved = that is of=20 the greatest importance, since rapid acidification reduces the = risk of=20 early growth of Clostridia. In direct cut, high moisture = situations,=20 ensiling procedures should be such that rapid acidification is = achieved.=20 However, with high dry matter crops and if sterility has been = used, the=20 rapid decrease in pH is not so = important.

Ch. 7. Ensilage. (2). Return=20 To Table of Contents

Types of ensilage:

For sweet sorghum, = as well=20 as maize, there are 3 types of ensilage:- entire plant ensilage = including=20 ear - stem ensilage and fruit ensilage

Stem ensilage is the = most=20 popular practice for preserving green sweet sorghum. Generally, = when=20 ensiling the stem, the pieces should be cut short i.e. 1-1.5 cm. = In=20 ensiling, supplementation of water is needed if the water content = in the=20 plant is lower than 40-45% so that the silo will seal better. = Around=20 48-55% of water is more desirable when the silo can=E2=80=99t be = sealed. The stalk=20 of sweet sorghum generally stays green, with water content when = ensiling=20 in the later autumn.

Additives:

Main = function of=20 additives:

Application of additives in ensiling can = help retain=20 the nutrition, increase feed value, and keep aerobic stability of = the=20 silage after it is removed from the silo. Other functions are as=20 follows:
- Nutrition supplement
- To supplement = carbohydrate used=20 in fermentation
- Application of acids to lower acidity
- = Inhibit=20 the multiplication of the detrimental bacteria and mould = bacteria
-=20 Decease the oxygen content
- Decrease the moisture content
- = Fix=20 soluble nutrient so as to avoid loss

The categories of = the=20 additives:

Urea: addition of urea in the ensiling = process would=20 increase the content of crude protein of the resultant silage, and = also=20 improve feed flavor and storage ability. The use of urea is: 0.45% = on dry=20 basis, distributed evenly while filling the silo. 0.8 kg CaSO4 is = added to=20 make the final ratio of nitrogen to sulphur less than 15:=20 1.

Acid-like materials: Phosphoric acid: suitable for = high-moisture=20 ensiling, but a shortcoming is that it gives bad feed=20 flavor.

Organic acid: Propionic acid, Acetic acid, Lactic = acid,=20 Citric acid, Formic acid etc, which effects are much better than = inorganic=20 acids. Usage: 1% on dry weight basis

Fermentation = enhancer: this=20 includes bacteria, yeast and enzyme products. The shortcoming is = their=20 unstable nature.

Preservatives: including antibiotic, salt, = disinfectants and etc. may occasionally be = used.

Ensiling=20 equipment:

Machinery: ensilaging combine harvester, forage cutter, = tractor, etc.=20

Silage containers:

Requirements for ensiling = container: Can be sealed to prevent air entrance; The walls should = be=20 straight and smooth; and of adequate depth and slanting and = strong; Be in=20 a well-drained site with a low water table, so that it = doesn=E2=80=99t enter the=20 silo. Each time before ensiling, the silo should be cleaned, = repaired, and=20 sterilized completely.

An example of a silo design is given = in Figure 7.2. The base and wall are = built with=20 bricks covered with cement. The thickness of the wall should be = not less=20 than 12 cm. The opening of the silo should be 20 cm above the = ground and=20 is designed for one silo per 10 sheep. Total volume is = 11.4m3=20 and net volume is 10 m3.

Types of silos: Shape; = round,=20 square, ditch, and silage tower. Position: half above ground; = underground=20 (Figures 7.3 & 7.4); above ground = and plastic sheets: suitable for a = household that=20 needs a small quantity of silage.

Half-above ground: This = silo is=20 the most common one having a large volume, suitable for a large = cattle farm=20 and is easy to fill. It is little affected by outside = temperatures, which=20 is good for fermentation of desired bacteria and high quality=20 silage.

Above ground: This is suitable where the water = table is=20 high. The height is determined by construction abilities. When a = forage=20 cutter with an automatic loading facility is available, the height = can be=20 as high as 7-10 m.

For the convenience of filling and = taking out=20 the silage, the silo (or tower) should be constructed near to and = facing=20 the animal shed with some windows each 1-1.5 meters from the = ground. The=20 walls must be strong and sealed enough to prevent air entrance.=20

Underground style: The whole silo or silage trench is = located=20 underground. The depth is less than 3 m and at least 0.5 m above = the water=20 table. It is suitable for cattle farms where the water table is = low and=20 soil texture is heavy and compact.

Silo volume: This is = determined=20 by the scale of the cattle or sheep farm. Generally, it is = designed to=20 meet the total consumption of the cattle population per day. The=20 circumference is determined so that 7-9 cm of the silage is = consumed per=20 day.

Advantage over other crops:

- Sweet = sorghum is a=20 C-4 pathway crop with high biomass = yield and=20 high resistance to drought, diseases, pests and water logging. = Stalk yield=20 is 45-75Mt/ha and grain yield ranges 1.5-3.25 Mt/ha.

- It = is rich=20 in sugar in the stalks - 8-22% (fresh weight), which is an = important=20 prerequisite and guarantee for successful ensiling.

- It = has a high=20 nutritious value for domestic animals. For the sweet sorghum = variety Rio,=20 the content of crude protein is slightly lower than maize, other=20 components except for non-nitrogen extracts similar, but the = non-nitrogen=20 extract is 2.57% higher and the sugar content is higher than=20 maize:

Table 7.1. Comparison of components (%) between sweet = sorghum=20 =E2=80=98Rio=E2=80=99 and maize =E2=80=98Jinduo 1=E2=80=99.
Crop Moisture Protein Fiber Fat Ash N-free extract
S.sorghum 78.87 6.0554 28.5657 0.5466 6.0445 60.5312
Maize 72.41 6.3998 29.0531 0.5456 4.4011 57.9568


- Water = content in=20 sweet sorghum stalks and leaves is changed insignificantly during = the=20 whole development. As the grain becomes mature, the water content = in the=20 stalk can still be up to 66.8%, and up to 41.4% in the leaves, = which is=20 conducive to long storage of ensilage.

- Sweet sorghum = silage has=20 good feed flavour and high digestibility and animals like to eat = it. It is=20 an elite preserved feed for domestic animals.

- Sweet = sorghum is=20 highly effective in producing good weight gain.

- Comparing = dried=20 sweet sorghum and other silages, it makes beef cattle gain 3% more = per=20 day, and the feedstuff utilization rate increases up to 10%. If = feeding=20 milk cows, the milk yield can increase by 5%.

Key = ensilage=20 points:

Harvest time - by hand or by = machine:

It=20 is important to harvest when highest yield can be acquired and to = get high=20 quality silage. For sweet sorghum, it is suitable for harvest at = the milk=20 to waxing stage, when the sugar content is the=20 highest.

Appropriate harvesting stage of some crops for=20 silage: Maize (whole plant) - waxing to yellow mature, may be = as early=20 as milk stage if frost comes; maize (without ears) - as early as = possible=20 after ears are harvested when more than half the leaves are green; = sweet=20 sorghum (stalk only) - waxing stage or as early as milk stage when = frost=20 comes and legumes - early flowering stage.

Mechanical=20 pretreatment:

The plants are cut into 1-1.5 cm segments = before=20 ensilage, which helps compact the ensilage in the silo and helps=20 removal.

Chopping, cutting, and bruising all can help make = good=20 silage, due to cell breakage, which favors bacterial growth and=20 facilitates adequate packing for air exclusion. Anaerobic = conditions can=20 be established quickly in cut forage and thus temperature rise may = be=20 limited to 25% of that observed in forages, which have not been = chopped=20 (e.g., round bale silage). More lactic acid is formed and less dry = matter=20 losses occur when forage is chopped. The pH of the silage and its = ammonia=20 content that result from protein degradation are reduced, and = lactic acid=20 concentrations are increased with progressively shorter lengths. = Where the=20 length of cut has been reduced, increased voluntary consumption by = cattle=20 and sheep has been observed.

Appropriate=20 moisture:

This is the most important means of = controlling the=20 ensiling process. Wilting in the field is a practical way to = obtain the=20 appropriate moisture for ensiling. A desirable moisture level is = 65%, but=20 slightly higher moistures may be desirable when long lengths are = used,=20 when packing is minimal, or when the silage is not well sealed. = Less=20 moisture (40-50%) is required in some oxygen limiting silos. The=20 recommended moisture content of forage stored in different types = of=20 structures are: Horizontal - 60-70%; concrete tower - 60-65%; - = oxygen=20 limiting - 40-50% and plastic sheets - 60-65%.

When = moisture=20 contents are greater than 65% seepage and loss of nutrients will = occur in=20 tower silos that are more than 10 m high. Such high moisture = levels will=20 also encourage growth of undesirable Clostridia = organisms.

At=20 moisture levels lower than 60%, excessive heating is likely to = occur=20 unless an oxygen-limiting silo is used. When the moisture content = is over=20 65%, sliced green plants can be mixed with some drier=20 forage.

Methods of determining moisture = content:

Lab=20 analysis: Take a sample of 1 kg chopped stem; dry to constant = weight with=20 heating cabinet or micro-oven; calculate the moisture by: Moisture = content=20 (%) =3D [Fresh sample weight- Dried sample weight]/Fresh sample = weight=20 =C3=97100

Empirical hand estimation: The moisture content = can be=20 estimated by hand squeezing - Clench the chopped stem tightly, and = then=20 open the fist; when the balled chopped stalk doesn=E2=80=99t break = up but has a=20 little seeped liquid, the moisture content is about 70-75%; when = it breaks=20 up slowly with some seeped liquid, the water content is around = 60-70% and=20 when it breaks cut up quickly after opening the fist, the moisture = is less=20 than 60%.

Rapid filling, packing and = sealing:

Once=20 the filling begins, it is better to fill the silo in a short time = before=20 sealing. The longer the time it takes to fill the silo, the = greater the=20 exposure to air. Generally it is recommended that the silo be = filled=20 within 2 days. Before filling begins, it is better to put some = longer=20 chopped forage plant or green plant with less moisture content or = even=20 dried hay at the bottom of the silo to absorb the juice that seeps = from=20 the chopped green forage.

The chopped silage should be well = distributed and pressed. If it is not well distributed and pressed = more=20 air will be retained in the silo, which will be not beneficial for = fermentation.

Sealing silos is beneficial to exclude air.=20 Generally, the sealing benefits only the surface layer of the = silage, but=20 if the silage is not well packed, it is beneficial for the entire = silage=20 mass. The silage making process can become anaerobic within 5 = hours when=20 the silage is sealed immediately after filling, whereas it can = take up to=20 90 hours to become anaerobic when sealing is delayed for 48 hours. =

Management: After sealing, a drainage ditch is dug = 1 m=20 around the silo so as not let rain in. Afterwards, regular = examinations=20 should be made and if a crack is found in the cover, some earth is = put on=20 it or it is sealed in another way.

Reference standard for = sensual=20 evaluation of silage quality: A good grade - yellow-green, slight = acid=20 flavour, fragrant, soft and a little moist. Medium grade - yellow = brown to=20 dark green, mild or no acid flavour, fragrant, soft and drier or = wetter.=20 Poor grade - black or brown, strong acid flavour, odorous, dry and = flakey=20 or clumped.

Opening the silo: A second aerobic phase begins = after=20 the silo is opened and the silage is exposed to air. Aerobic=20 microorganisms that have remained dormant in the absence of oxygen = start=20 to grow, which causes a rise in temperature of the silage. = Normally there=20 is also some appearance of mould at this time. Silage may start to = undergo=20 aerobic deterioration within a few hours of exposure to air, but = may also=20 be stable for as long as a few days. Very high moisture silages = with a=20 high buffering capacity are most susceptible to aerobic = deterioration=20 because they are most likely to be contaminated by fungi. Also = susceptible=20 to aerobic deterioration is silage in which fermentation has been = limited=20 with additives. Silages that are more resistant to aerobic = deterioration=20 at feeding are those in which the length of exposure to oxygen has = been=20 kept to a minimum by rapid filling and packing during the silage = making=20 progress.

Other Points:

- Young green plants = of sweet=20 sorghum are not fit to feed animals because they contain some = detrimental=20 components. However, it is unnecessary to worry about feed = poisoning after=20 ensiling, because these are destroyed during the process.

- = It is=20 encouraged to ensile sweet sorghum mixed with maize. In this way, = maize=20 stalks are utilized instead of burning them in the field and = polluting the=20 air. Meanwhile, nutrients of the two crops supplement each other, = which is=20 beneficial for cattle growth and = development.

Ch. 8. Agro-ecosystems. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Introduction:

Sweet=20 sorghum has a very high biomass yield. The Institute of = Botany,=20 Chinese Academy of Sciences, showed that the stalk and fresh = biomass=20 yields for the cultivars =E2=80=98M-81E=E2=80=99 and = =E2=80=98Thies=E2=80=99 are 89.5 & 94.8 and 128=20 & 125 t/ha respectively. An experiment carried out in Germany = showed=20 that the highest fresh biomass was 160 t/ha.

Two world = petroleum=20 crises clearly show that it is an undeniably finite resource. At = present,=20 it is impossible that any individual technology can be used to = meet the=20 demand for energy in the world. Therefore, many countries are = seeking new=20 energy resources, and many people want green renewable energy. = Among the=20 biomass energy crops, sweet sorghum is the most important species. = It has=20 been cultivated as an energy plant in many countries. Experiments = in the=20 former Yugoslavia show that the biomass yield = from=20 irrigated fields can be used to make 8000 l/ha of alcohol. In India,=20 experiments in making alcohol with sugarcane=20 show that alcohol output is 4,000-5,000 l/ha/year, while that from = sweet=20 sorghum is 5700-6500 l/ha/year. In the USA,=20 the alcohol output from sweet sorghum is 6,106 l/ha/year while the = alcohol=20 output from sugarcane, which was called the most effective = transformer of=20 solar-energy, is only 4,680 l/ha/year. In Japan,=20 the experiments with the carbohydrate daily synthesized by several = crops=20 and transformed into alcohol, showed that alcohol output of sweet = sorghum=20 is 48 l/ha/day, while that of maize, wheat and grain sorghum is only 15 = l/ha/day, 3=20 l/ha/day and 9 l//ha/day respectively.

Sweet sorghum = produces=20 grain, sugar and syrup, wine, alcohol and monosodium glutamate. = The fibre=20 can be used to make pulp or paper. Since it has good drought, = water=20 logging and salinity resistance it has wide adaptability. It is = well=20 received by farmers, and can be rapidly popularized in many = provinces,=20 cities and autonomous regions in China,=20 producing economic and social benefits. Therefore, it is possible = to build=20 up an agro-ecosystem in which sweet sorghum is used as the key = focus. In=20 order to accelerate its integrated utilization, studies on the = sustainable=20 agro-ecological system were done with support by the Chinese = Academy of=20 Sciences in 2000.

The structure is demonstrated in figure 8.1. In this agro-ecosystem, = black=20 mushrooms or others may be inter-planted in the furrow between rows. The sweet sorghum seed = can be=20 used as food or forage; the leaves can be used to = feed cows or=20 fish. The chopped stem can be used for making = wine or=20 ethanol fuel, fodder and silage. The residue after brewing wine or = extracting juice for alcohol can be used as fodder for cows. The = cow=20 manure and crop residues can be used for making biogas. The biogas = can be=20 used for cooking or burnt in greenhouses or plastic sheds to increase = illumination and=20 heat, and at the same time the CO2 released can enhance = the=20 growth and development of vegetables or ornamentals in = greenhouses. The=20 biogas generator residues can be used = as=20 fertilizer.

Thus, a sustainable sweet sorghum = agro-ecological=20 system is formed for encouraging the development of energy, = agriculture,=20 stock breeding and fisheries in the countryside. The system has = high=20 economic benefits, and in arid and saline alkali areas it allows=20 production of animals and food where other crops have failed.=20

Agro-ecosystem=20 structure:

Cultivars:

The choice is = critical for=20 the successful operation of this agro-ecosystem because it is the = base=20 product. The varieties chosen must have high biomass and = adaptability,=20 which can convert more solar energy and improve the = system=E2=80=99s stability.=20 The cultivars introduced, selected or bred by our Institute of = Botany,=20 such as =E2=80=98Wray=E2=80=99, =E2=80=98M-81E=E2=80=99, = =E2=80=98BJ-190=E2=80=99, =E2=80=98BJ-281=E2=80=99 etc., can be = cultivated used.=20 The total biomass of these varieties is about 75-120 t/ha at = average plant=20 density.

They are 3.5-4.5 meters tall, so it is important = to=20 arrange the crop by spacing so as to improve CO2 = availability=20 in the field. Several rows comprise a high-density bed and space = between=20 beds is larger than average. On the other hand, in later growth = periods,=20 tall stalks can produce a shade environment near the ground, and = this is=20 suitable for mushrooms. We plant mushrooms between two groups of = sweet=20 sorghum. This is called =E2=80=98stereoscopic = cultivation=E2=80=99, and this cultivation=20 method makes best use of the resources and the environment. The = plant and=20 inter-row spacing of 70=C3=9715 cm (95,235 plant per ha), every = four rows in=20 each bed is suitable. The space between every two rows is used to = grow=20 black or other edible mushrooms.

Mushroom=20 varieties:

The variety of mushroom should be chosen = according=20 to different conditions. However, as it is always difficult to = control the=20 humidity in the field; one should cultivate varieties adaptable to = drier=20 conditions. These varieties should be easy to cultivate under=20 shade.

In our case, the variety of mushroom is = =E2=80=98888=E2=80=99 newly bred by=20 Chaoyang Institute of Edible Fungi, Liaoning Province. The bagasse is mixed with sawdust, = corncob=20 powder and small quantity of soybean meal; then the pH of the = mixture is=20 adjusted to 6.5 with lime. The mixture is put in sterilized = polypropylene=20 plastic bags of 33=C3=9717 cm and the bags are put in a suitable = temperature=20 for culturing fungi. At the beginning of August the bags are split = and put=20 into the space between every 2 rows. Every 2 rows a 30 cm = passageway is=20 left for access. The technology can be changed according to the = variety of=20 mushroom chosen.

Wine/alcohol production:

Two = different methods are used to make wine from the stalks; solid and = liquid=20 fermentation. The first is easy to operate with simple equipment. = However,=20 it is difficult to control the temperature and pH for = fermentation, and=20 needs more labour and time and is often used in small-scale wine = making.=20 On the contrary, the liquid fermentation is suitable for large = scale or=20 industrial wine production. Firstly solid fermentation is used to = produce=20 wine from sweet sorghum in our research of this ecosystem. When = sweet=20 sorghum is mature and the sugar content is high, it is cut at or = below=20 ground level and stacked on to the trailer/truck, then transported = to the=20 fermentation plant.

The seed heads and leaves are removed = and=20 stacked separately. The stacked stripped stalks are placed near = the=20 crusher/mill and washed to remove dirt. The stalk is cut into = pieces by a=20 silage cutter, and then put into cellar for brewing 4 days after = mixing=20 with the proper quantity of yeast powder. The last step is to = distill the=20 mash with steam distillation equipment to produce alcohol. (Later = sections=20 of this manual provide greater details.)

It is vital to = choose a=20 good yeast to produce a high quality and quantity of wine. The=20 fermentation temperature and pH is critical for the activity of = the yeast=20 and the resulting wine. The average output is 1kg of alcohol of 56 = degrees=20 from about 12-18 kg of stalks. If the wine is distilled further = one gets=20 purer alcohol. The equipment and technology for alcohol production = are=20 detailed in another part of this manual.

A small size = alcohol still=20 made by Revenoor Corporation of U.S.A. was used to distill the = wine into=20 alcohol.

Livestock Shed:

As winter is cold in = northern China, the livestock are kept indoors. A livestock solar = panel=20 was built into a solar greenhouse to promote livestock growth. For = convenient management, the livestock shed was built in the first = room near=20 the door in the glasshouse. At the same time, the expiration of = livestock=20 can improve the CO2 content in the greenhouse, which=20 contributes to enhancing rapid growth of vegetables=20 inside.

Biogas plant:

To ensure that the = biogas plant=20 generates biogas normally in winter it is built under the = livestock shed.=20 The size of the plant is built based on the size of the solar = greenhouse.=20 With a one-mu (666.7m2) solar greenhouse, the biogas = plant is=20 10m3. The livestock are raised in the area on top of = the plant.=20

Experimental greenhouse:

Two similar solar=20 greenhouses (666.7m2) were built. One incorporated = livestock=20 and biogas for testing and the other was a control standard solar=20 greenhouse. The vegetable cultivated was cucumber.=20 The base fertilizer applied was organic such as the waste and = liquid=20 retained after generating biogas. In the control 5 lamps were put = in, and=20 the distance between every two lamps was 20 m; the illumination = added=20 lasted 6 hours every day.

The determining factors on the = growth of=20 vegetable are the illumination, temperature, CO2 = concentration=20 and relative humidity. In the glasshouse, three representative = sites were=20 selected to carry out the observation at 08:00, 12:00 and 16:00 = every=20 day.

Result and cost benefit = analyses:

Breeding=20 new varieties:

During the 70=E2=80=99s and = 80=E2=80=99s, China introduced a=20 large numbers of excellent early and late varieties and germplasm = of sweet=20 sorghum from Southern and Northern America, Asia, Europe, Africa = and=20 Australia. Through evaluation and characterization a large number = of=20 superior varieties with high yield, high content of sugar, wide=20 adaptability and for other products, such as = =E2=80=98Wray=E2=80=99, =E2=80=98Cowley=E2=80=99, = =E2=80=98M-81E=E2=80=99,=20 etc. were screened. In the 90=E2=80=99s bred some new varieties = were bred such as=20 =E2=80=98BJ-190=E2=80=99, =E2=80=98BJ-281=E2=80=99, = =E2=80=98BJ-238=E2=80=99, =E2=80=98BJ-248=E2=80=99 etc.; either in the = regional=20 experiments in China or in international trials. The experiments = in 3.4 ha=20 in Yutian County, Hebei Province, in 1997, produced an average = stalk yield=20 of 74.8 t/ha and 4.86 t/ha of grain. For =E2=80=98BJ-190=E2=80=99, = the average yield of=20 stalk was 75 t/ha, grain 4.6 t/ha and leaves 19.3 t/ha (table=20 8.1), over 3 years.

Interplanting of edible=20 mushrooms:

As sweet sorghum is tall (4-5m), the shade = density=20 is quite high, and thus the temperature is low, and the humidity = is high.=20 This environmental condition benefits the growth of edible fungi. = The=20 method of interplanting black mushrooms in the field of sweet = sorghum is=20 as follows:

Each bed grows 4 rows of sweet sorghum, the = spacing=20 between rows is 70 cm; between every two furrows, a space of 1.4 m = width=20 is maintained for cultivating the edible fungi; and 30 cm at the = center is=20 retained as pathway for management At both sides of the pathway = there are=20 3 rows of fungus bags. The stalk bagasse, sawdust and crushed = corncob are=20 used as the culture medium. The compost is put in bags, then = sterilized=20 and inoculated. The bags are split and put in the field to grow. = After=20 harvesting the first crop, in 7-10 days, second crop can be = harvested.=20 Each ha field can contain 79,335 bags, each bag produces 30 g of = dried=20 black fungi, that is, 2385 kg/ha (one ha of field contains 15,000 = bags).=20 The highest yield is 6,000-7,500 kg/ha). If the price is 40 = Yuan/kg, then,=20 the output value is 95,190 Yuan/ha. After deducting the costs of = 0.40=20 Yuan/bag, the net profit is 62,450 Yuan/ha (about=20 US$7,800/ha).

Feeding fish with leaves:

The = leaves of=20 contain 3-5% sugar, and the content of protein is high. It is an = excellent=20 fodder for fish. Either the whole leaves or chopped/torn leaves = are fed to=20 grass carp. 31.5 kg of original fodder produced 1 kg of grass = carp, while=20 for sweet sorghum; 24.3 kg could produce 1 kg of grass carp. 18.8 = t of=20 leaves/ha of sweet sorghum if used to feed grass carp, can produce = 780 kg=20 of grass carp/year.

Wine from the stalk:

The = simple=20 method is solid fermentation. The wine can be seasoned into potash = wine or=20 distilled into alcohol.

Solid fermentation technology and = its=20 equipment used in this study are simple and convenient to operate = in=20 making wine. This technology can be used for large-scale factory = or=20 small-scale household production. After harvesting the mature = grain the=20 stalk is crushed before mixing with yeast and some wine residues = then=20 fermented for 4-5 days. Then the mash and wine is steam distilled. = The=20 wine can be aged and blended into potash wine or further distilled = to=20 produce purer alcohol.

The wine made from sweet sorghum is = pure.=20 The content of methanol is lower than that of any wine made from = grain.=20 The output rate of white spirit of 60% alcohol is about 6-10%. The = output=20 of white spirit is 4671-5574 kg/ha. The total yield including the = alcohol=20 made from grain can reach 6449 - 7352 kg/ha. (Table=20 8.2).

Alcohol from white spirit:

A = small-scale=20 alcohol still from Revenoor Corporation, USA, was used. 5 litres = of white=20 spirit containing 60% alcohol made from stalks was further = distilled. The=20 temperature was controlled at 200oC, to produce 95% = alcohol.=20 The output of 95% alcohol is 2.93 litres and the recovery rate is=20 58.6%.

Distiller=E2=80=99s grain for = cattle:

The distiller=E2=80=99s=20 grain contains cellulose, fat, albumen and large quantity of amino = acids=20 and is a fine fodder for feeding cattle.

It is the common = fodder=20 used for feeding milking cows and gives 9.50 kg/day of milk. The=20 distiller=E2=80=99s grain is used for feeding beef cows and = produces 9.75 kg/day,=20 increasing output 0.25 kg, at a cost of 0.5 Yuan.

Biogas = solar=20 greenhouse:

In this system, a solar greenhouse provides = the=20 environmental conditions for plants and biogas generation. Cow = dung is the=20 material used to feed the plants. It cannot only give an innocuous = treatment of cow dung but also activates a lot of enzymes needed = by crops.=20 The biogas is used for lighting and to increase the illumination, = and to=20 apply CO2 and heat.

A biogas plant is placed = under the=20 livestock shed built into the solar greenhouse. Another common = solar=20 greenhouse (control) was used for comparison. The vegetables grown = in the=20 both glasshouses were cucumbers.

The biogas solar = greenhouse had 5=20 biogas lamps, burning for 6 hrs/day. The fertilizer applied was = organic=20 fertilizer sediment and liquid after generating biogas. The = results of the=20 experiment showed that: the illumination increased by=20 0.2-1.1=C3=97104 Lx; the temperature increased by=20 2.1-4.0oC; the relative humidity decreased by 4-15%; = the=20 CO2 content increased by 109-129 ppm. (Tables=20 8.3 to 8.7). Over 3 years the content of organic matter in the = soil=20 increased by 0.004-0.180% (table=20 8.8). The biogas solar glasshouse can increase net income to = 56,205=20 Yuan/ha (approx. US$7,000).

Benefit = analysis:

For the=20 stereoscopic planting model, the variety =E2=80=98BJ-190=E2=80=99 = was planted continuously=20 in an area of 10.7 ha for three years. The average seed yield was = 4602=20 kg/ha and stalk 75 t/ha. Through solid fermentation, the stalk and = grain=20 were used to make white spirit containing 55.3% alcohol and the = output of=20 white wine was 6449-7352 kg/ha. 3.00 Yuan/kg for products gives=20 19370-22056 Yuan/ha (approx. US$7,000). With inter-planting edible = fungi=20 with a cropping cycle of 2-3 months, the net income is about = 63,450=20 Yuan/ha (approx. US$8,000). With the stereoscopic model, the net = income is=20 about 120,000 Yuan/ha (US$14,000). At a price of 0.1 Yuan/kg then = the=20 75,000 kg/ha of distiller=E2=80=99s grain remaining after making = wine with sweet=20 sorghum can be converted into 7,500 Yuan/ha (US$9,140). If the = leaves are=20 used to feed fish, such as grass carp, the leaf yield - 18,795 = kg/ha can=20 produce 773 kg of grass carp. At 7 Yuan/kg, the value is 5411 = Yuan/ha=20 (approx. US$700). The cow dung and the remains of the crop can be = used to=20 generate biogas. This can be used for cooking, illumination or = burnt in=20 solar plastic-sheet hothouses for increasing illumination, = promoting=20 growth of flowers, vegetables or other plants. The biogas residues = can=20 return to the field. In comparison with common solar hothouses, = biogas=20 solar plastic sheet hothouses can increase income to 56,190 = Yuan/ha. Thus=20 the total income amounts about 151,898-211,157 Yuan/ha, or 10-20 = times the=20 income from common crops. This farming system is a new one with = high cost=20 input and high profit output as well as high quality and high = economic=20 benefit. Also, the structure of this soil is improved and = fertility=20 strengthened. In this case, agriculture, livestock farming, = fishery and=20 renewable energy resources can be developed at the same time, = bringing=20 economic, ecological and social benefits.

The technology = adopted is=20 very practical and readily implemented. Two-year experiments, well = conducted, produced outstanding benefits. In view of the = characteristics=20 of sweet sorghum such as drought resistance, waterlogging = resistance and=20 saline-alkali tolerance, this system can be extended to areas = where the=20 accumulated temperature heat units amount to 2,900-4,100 degree = days per=20 year in vast areas of northwest China. The system will bring = sustainable=20 development of agriculture, solving the problem of forage = deficiency and=20 increasing the local farmers=E2=80=99 incomes.

Some = questions and=20 discussions:

Energy and material flow:

In = this=20 agro-ecosystem sweet sorghum is the core and the energy source of = other=20 parts. The amount of biomass and the growth status limit the size = of other=20 system parts to be supported by its energy and material flow. The = solar=20 energy and nutrient and water which sweet sorghum absorbs from = soil are=20 the main energy inputs of the ecosystem. After assimilation by = sweet=20 sorghum, the energy is apportioned to different parts such as = seeds,=20 stalks, roots and leaves. As each is used for different purposes, = the=20 energy flows goes in different directions. One part is used to = produce=20 outputs such as wine, milk, alcohol, biogas and other parts go = back to the=20 soil and the environment.

Some pivotal technology and=20 steps:

The variety of sweet sorghum and=20 cultivation;

The output of sweet sorghum is vital for = the=20 smooth operation of this ecosystem. On the one hand, different = varieties=20 should be chosen for different areas and climate because they have = different characteristic and yield. On the other hand, suitable = and=20 standard technology is needed to cultivate it according to the = output. In=20 order to ensure that the amount of the sweet sorghum is optimal, = areas=20 should be chosen according to the varietal capabilities, desired = use and=20 environment.

Mushroom selection:

The edible = fungi=20 used were black mushrooms, (Auricularia=20 polytricha), the oyster mushroom Pleurotus=20 ostreatus and the lentinus mushroom (Lentinula=20 edodes). The experiments showed plain mushroom has the = best=20 resistance to infection of other fungi and best adaptability to=20 environment, and has quick emergence and high yield; black fungus = follows.=20 However the black fungus price is higher and is conveniently = preserved for=20 a long time after drying. The two kinds of edible fungi are = suitable to=20 interplanting while the lantanas mushroom is not suitable because = it needs=20 more precise growing conditions.

In Beijing, the humidity = is lower=20 in September, affecting the growth of the first and second crops = of fungi.=20 If a 200 cm spacing is retained between rows, and iron frames are = used=20 with slope on one side for planting fungi and if covered with = silver-gray=20 or black plastic sheet the space is increased and the humidity and = illumination are controlled. The per unit area field of fungi and = the=20 economic benefit increase twofold compared to fungi planted at = ground=20 level.

The quaternary greenhouse:

This kind = of=20 greenhouse is suitable for the north of China. It is = =E2=80=9Cquaternary=E2=80=9D because=20 it has the functions of the planting, livestock, biogas plant, and = the=20 kitchen at the same time. Every part can contribute to each other, = which=20 improves the efficiency of the energy and costs. The quaternary = greenhouse=20 is an important part of this ecosystem, and it makes complex steps = for the=20 utilization of sweet sorghum easy to operate and improves the = feasibility=20 of the ecosystem.

Ecosystem productivity and=20 stability:

Any ecosystem has 4 basic characteristics;=20 productivity, stability, durability and equilibrium. Productivity = is the=20 increment of value added product in time. When productivity = changes little=20 due to the stability of the climate and other factors, the = ecosystem=20 stability is high. Durability is the capability of maintaining = high=20 productivity although despite some major disturbances. Equilibrium = is how=20 the energy and product are divided in different parts and steps. = These 4=20 characteristics of an ecosystem are interdependable.

During = the=20 operation of this ecosystem, the land resource is used as the = base, the=20 solar energy as the motive power, sweet sorghum as the tap and = biogas as=20 the link. It depends on bio-energy technology to make the plant = and animal=20 cultivation, greenhouse and biogas digester combine into one = system, which=20 forms an energy-ecology-circulatory and integrated utilization = system.=20 This system could be expected to reach an integrated optimum = effectiveness=20 in development of an economy, environment protection, energy = utilization=20 and subsequent economic benefits.

The system is a unique = innovation=20 for the future. It can be used in any area suitable for growing = sweet=20 sorghum.

Ch. 9. Other Uses. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Sweet sorghum can be used to make = plywood, red=20 pigment, vinegar, yellow wine (rice wine), charcoal pellets etc. = The=20 following will introduce technologies of sorghum red pigment = extraction=20 and yellow wine making.

Red pigment:

It is = chemically=20 a derivative of flavone-like compounds, which are = natural=20 pigments with no toxicity or special flavor. Usually it is red = powder or a=20 lumpy solid or can be processed into liquid or paste as required. = It can=20 be dissolved in water, its acidic liquid form shows a slight brown = colour,=20 its neutral liquid is brown and its alkali liquid deep brown. It = can be=20 used widely for colouring in the processing of meat, fish, soybean=20 products, cakes, drinks, sugar, medical capsules, etc.

It = is mainly=20 composed of two molecules: (a) 5, 4=E2=80=99-dihydroxy = -7-0-soflavone glycoside=20 and (b) 5, 4=E2=80=99- dihydroxy-6, 8- diomethoxy-7-0- soflavone = galactoside. The=20 ratio of the two molecules is a:b =3D 2:1. Their molecular formula = and=20 molecular weights respectively are C21H20O10 /432.37 and = C23H24O12/492.42.=20 (See figure 9.1).

Pigment = extraction=20 from grain husks:

Crush grain husks into a powder, put = the=20 powder into extraction vats, immerse in alcohol for 2 hours then = filter=20 with gauze. A clear liquid is obtained. This is concentrated until = the=20 solid component is about 40%. Alcohol is then added to extract protein, pectin, etc. and then filtered to = get a=20 clearer liquid. The liquid is then clarified by reflux = condensation until=20 the solid content is about 50%. The solid component is then = desiccated=20 with an air pump until complete dry. It is then filtered with an = 80-mesh=20 screen. The production rate is about 5% of grain = husk.

Yellow=20 wine production:

Yellow wine, with very long production = history=20 in China (more than 5000 years) is very = popular. Now=20 it is called liquid bread because of its high nutrition=20 value.

Based on 13 years of experience in development of = the=20 northern-type yellow wine, the technology for producing it from = sweet=20 sorghum and its healthy series of products were developed in the = Gansu=20 Academy of Sciences.

More than 100 varieties of yellow = wine can be=20 made according to different natural resources in different = regions. These=20 products are healthy with a low alcohol content (0.5-18%), an = attractive=20 colour of light to brown yellow with a high nutrient = value.

At=20 present, potable alcohol is added in the later stage of yellow = wine=20 production from millet in order to increase alcohol = content. But=20 some problems are found after adding alcohol, i.e. a decreased = nutrient=20 value and poor taste. So sweet sorghum wine was tried in the place = of=20 alcohol. In this way the nutrient value and taste were improved. = If millet=20 is mixed with the sweet sorghum stalk cut before fermentation a = better=20 flavor and higher nutrient value is achieved. See Figure 9.2.

Nutrient = value of=20 sweet sorghum yellow wine:

Analysis made with a Hitachi = 835-50=20 amino acid auto analyzer on = components of=20 sweet sorghum yellow wine is shown in table=20 9.1 which shows that all 8 essential amino acids are present. = The=20 total amino acid content is the highest among all kinds of wines, = 10 times=20 for beer and 3-5 for grape wine.

Physical, = chemical, and=20 hygiene parameters: See=20 table 9.2.

Tips:

Water is the most = important=20 factor that affects the wine quality. Water used in the process = should be=20 clean and softened in order to produce high quality=20 wine.

Ch. 10. Further reading. Return=20 To Table of Contents

Li Dajue & Liao Fusun, 1992. = "Sweet=20 Sorghum and its Utilization".

Li Dajue, 1997. "Abstracts on = Sweet=20 Sorghum". (See Cover).

Li Dajue, 1997. " Proceedings of = the First=20 International Sweet Sorghum Conference. (See Cover).

 =20

Sign=20 = in

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TABLE.ecoportNav { BORDER-RIGHT: black 1px solid; BORDER-TOP: black 1px solid; MARGIN-LEFT: auto; BORDER-LEFT: black 1px solid; WIDTH: 100%; MARGIN-RIGHT: auto; BORDER-BOTTOM: black 1px solid; BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #f4f6eb; TEXT-ALIGN: center; border-spacing: 5px } TABLE.ecoportNav A:link { FONT-SIZE: 11pt; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica; TEXT-DECORATION: none } TABLE.ecoportNav A:visited { FONT-SIZE: 11pt; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica; TEXT-DECORATION: none } TABLE.ecoportNav A.active:link { FONT-SIZE: 11pt; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } TABLE.ecoportNav A.active:visited { FONT-SIZE: 11pt; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } TABLE.ecoportNav A:hover { FONT-SIZE: 11pt; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } TABLE.searchScreenTable { MARGIN-LEFT: auto; MARGIN-RIGHT: auto; TEXT-ALIGN: center } 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